As confidentially submitted to the Securities and Exchange Commission on February 6, 2026.

This draft registration statement has not been publicly filed with the Securities and Exchange Commission and all information herein remains strictly confidential.

Registration No. 333-     

UNITED STATES

SECURITIES AND EXCHANGE COMMISSION

WASHINGTON, D.C. 20549

FORM S-1

REGISTRATION STATEMENT

UNDER

THE SECURITIES ACT OF 1933

Avalyn Pharma Inc.

(Exact name of registrant as specified in its charter)

Avalyn Pharma Inc.

105 W First Street

Boston, Massachusetts 02127

(206) 707-0340

(Address, including zip code, and telephone number, including area code, of registrant’s principal executive offices)

Lyn Baranowski

Chief Executive Officer

Avalyn Pharma Inc.

105 W First Street

Boston, Massachusetts 02127

(206) 707-0340

(Name, address, including zip code, and telephone number, including area code, of agent for service)

Copies to:

Approximate date of commencement of proposed sale to the public: As soon as practicable after this registration statement becomes effective.

If any of the securities being registered on this Form are to be offered on a delayed or continuous basis pursuant to Rule 415 under the Securities Act of 1933, as amended, check the following box: ☐

If this Form is filed to register additional securities for an offering pursuant to Rule 462(b) under the Securities Act, please check the following box and list the Securities Act registration statement number of the earlier effective registration statement for the same offering. ☐

If this Form is a post-effective amendment filed pursuant to Rule 462(c) under the Securities Act, check the following box and list the Securities Act registration statement number of the earlier effective registration statement for the same offering. ☐

If this Form is a post-effective amendment filed pursuant to Rule 462(d) under the Securities Act, check the following box and list the Securities Act registration statement number of the earlier effective registration statement for the same offering. ☐

Indicate by check mark whether the registrant is a large accelerated filer, an accelerated filer, a non-accelerated filer, a smaller reporting company or an emerging growth company. See the definitions of “large accelerated filer,” “accelerated filer,” “smaller reporting company,” and “emerging growth company” in Rule 12b-2 of the Exchange Act.

If an emerging growth company, indicate by check mark if the registrant has elected not to use the extended transition period for complying with any new or revised financial accounting standards provided pursuant to Section 7(a)(2)(B) of the Securities Act. ☐

The Registrant hereby amends this Registration Statement on such date or dates as may be necessary to delay its effective date until the Registrant shall file a further amendment which specifically states that this Registration Statement shall thereafter become effective in accordance with Section 8(a) of the Securities Act of 1933, as amended, or until the Registration Statement shall become effective on such date as the Securities and Exchange Commission, acting pursuant to said Section 8(a), may determine.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Market, Industry and Other Data

The market data and certain other statistical information used throughout this prospectus are based on independent industry publications, governmental publications, reports by market research firms, or other independent sources that we believe to be reliable sources. Industry publications and third-party research, surveys, and studies generally indicate that their information has been obtained from sources believed to be reliable, although they do not guarantee the accuracy or completeness of such information. We are responsible for all of the disclosures contained in this prospectus, and we believe that these sources are reliable; however, we have not independently verified the information contained in such publications. While we are not aware of any misstatements regarding any third-party information presented in this prospectus, their estimates, in particular, as they relate to projections, involve numerous assumptions, are subject to risks and uncertainties, and are subject to change based on various factors, including those discussed under the section titled “Risk Factors” and elsewhere in this prospectus. Some data are also based on our good faith estimates.

PRESENTATION OF FINANCIAL INFORMATION

Pursuant to the applicable provisions of the Fixing America’s Surface Transportation Act, we are omitting our audited financial statements as of and for the year ended December 31, 2023 and our unaudited financial statements as of and for the nine months ended September 30, 2024 and 2025 because they relate to historical periods that we believe will not be required to be included in the prospectus at the time of the contemplated offering. We intend to amend this registration statement to include all financial information required by Regulation S-X under the Securities Act of 1933, as amended, at the date of such amendment before distributing a preliminary prospectus to investors.

RISK FACTORS

Investing in our common stock involves a high degree of risk. You should consider and read carefully all of the risks and uncertainties described below, as well as the other information in this prospectus, including our consolidated financial statements and the related notes appearing elsewhere in this prospectus and “Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations” before deciding whether to invest in our common stock. The risks described below are not the only ones facing us. The following risks or additional risks and uncertainties not presently known to us or that we currently believe to be immaterial could materially and adversely affect our business, financial condition, results of operations and growth prospects. In such an event, the trading price of our common stock could decline, and you may lose all or part of your investment. This prospectus also contains forward-looking statements and estimates that involve risks and uncertainties not presently known to us or that we currently deem immaterial that also may impair our business operations. Our actual results could differ materially from those anticipated in our forward-looking statements as a result of specific factors, including the risks and uncertainties described below.

Risks Related to Our Financial Condition and Need for Additional Capital

We are a clinical-stage biopharmaceutical company and have incurred significant operating losses since inception and anticipate that we will continue to incur significant operating losses for the foreseeable future. Our net losses were $ million and $49.7 million for the years ended December 31, 2025 and 2024, respectively. We had an accumulated deficit of $ million and $180.2 million as of December 31, 2025 and 2024, respectively. We may never achieve or maintain profitability.

We are a clinical-stage biopharmaceutical company and have incurred operating losses in each year since our inception. Our net losses were $ million and $49.7 million for the years ended December 31, 2025 and 2024, respectively. We had an accumulated deficit of $ million and $180.2 million as of December 31, 2025 and 2024, respectively. Substantially all of our operating losses have resulted from costs incurred in connection with our research and development programs and from general and administrative costs associated with our operations. Our prior losses, combined with expected future losses, have had and will continue to have an adverse effect on our stockholders’ deficit and working capital.

Since our inception in 2011, we have devoted substantially all of our efforts and financial resources to the development of our product candidates, the continuation of ongoing clinical trials, the commencement of new clinical trials and ongoing manufacturing to support our product candidates. Biopharmaceutical product development is a highly speculative undertaking and involves a substantial degree of risk. We have not yet demonstrated an ability to conduct later-stage clinical trials, obtain regulatory approval, manufacture any product on a commercial scale or conduct sales and marketing activities necessary for successful product commercialization, and there is no assurance that we will accomplish any of these abilities in the future. Our operating history makes any assessment of our future success and viability subject to significant uncertainty. In addition, if we obtain marketing approval for any of our product candidates, we will incur significant sales, marketing, and manufacturing expenses. Once we are a public company, we will incur additional costs associated with operating as a public company. As a result, we expect to continue to incur significant expenses and increasing operating losses for the foreseeable future. Because of the numerous risks and uncertainties associated with developing pharmaceutical products, we are unable to predict the extent of any future losses or when we will become profitable, if at all. Even if we become profitable, we may not be able to sustain or increase our profitability on a quarterly or annual basis.

The amount of our future losses is uncertain, and our quarterly operating results may fluctuate significantly or may fall below the expectations of investors or securities analysts, each of which may cause our stock price to fluctuate or decline. Our operating losses may fluctuate significantly from quarter to quarter and from year to year. We anticipate that our expenses will increase substantially if, and as, we:

We may encounter unforeseen expenses, difficulties, complications, delays and other unknown factors that may adversely affect our business. The size of our future net losses will depend, in part, on the rate of future growth of our expenses and our ability to generate revenue.

Given the numerous risks and uncertainties associated with pharmaceutical product development, it is not certain if any of our current or future product candidates will advance through late-stage development or be approved for commercial sale; therefore, we are unable to predict if or when we will generate product revenue or achieve or maintain profitability.

Even if we successfully complete development and obtain the necessary regulatory approval for commercialization for any of our product candidates, we anticipate incurring significant costs associated with launching and commercializing such products. If we fail to become profitable or do not sustain profitability on a continuing basis, we may be unable to continue our operations at planned levels and be forced to reduce or cease operations.

Even if this offering is successful, we will need substantial additional funding. We may be unable to raise capital on acceptable terms, if at all, and, as a result, we may be required to delay, reduce, or eliminate our product development programs or commercialization efforts.

Our operations have consumed substantial amounts of cash since inception. Identifying potential product candidates and conducting preclinical testing and clinical trials is a time-consuming, expensive and uncertain process that takes years to complete, and we may never generate the necessary data or results required to obtain regulatory approvals and achieve product sales. We expect to continue to incur significant and increasing expenses and operating losses for the foreseeable future as we initiate and conduct clinical trials of our current and future product candidates, scale-up and manufacture our product candidates, advance our preclinical programs, seek marketing and regulatory approvals for any product candidates that successfully complete clinical trials and commercialize our products, if approved. Because the outcome of any clinical trial or preclinical study is highly uncertain, we cannot reliably estimate the actual amount of financing necessary to successfully complete the development and commercialization of any of our product candidates.

We believe that the anticipated net proceeds from this offering, together with our existing cash, cash equivalents and short-term investments, will be sufficient to fund our operating expenses and capital requirements into . This estimate is based on assumptions that may prove to be wrong, and we could use our available capital resources sooner than we expect. Changes may occur beyond our control that would cause us to consume our available capital before that time, including but not limited to changes in progress of our development activities, acquisitions of additional product candidates, and changes in regulation. Our future capital requirements will depend on many factors, including:

We will require additional capital to achieve our business objectives. Additional funds may not be available on a timely basis, on favorable terms or at all, and such funds, if raised, may not be sufficient to enable us to continue implementing our long-term business strategy. Further, our ability to raise additional capital may be adversely impacted by global economic conditions and disruptions to and volatility in the credit and financial markets in the United States, or the U.S., and worldwide resulting from factors that include but are not limited to, inflation, tariffs, global conflicts, diminished liquidity and credit availability, declines in consumer confidence, declines in economic growth, increases in unemployment rates, uncertainty about economic stability and other factors. If the equity and credit markets deteriorate, it may make any necessary debt or equity financing more difficult to obtain, more costly

and more dilutive. If we are unable to raise sufficient additional capital, we could be forced to curtail our planned operations and the pursuit of our growth strategy, or even cease operations.

Raising additional capital may cause dilution to our stockholders, including purchasers of our common stock in this offering, restrict our operations or require us to relinquish rights to our product candidates.

Until such time, if ever, as we can generate substantial revenues from product sales, we expect to finance our cash needs through a combination of equity offerings, debt financings or other capital sources, such as grants, collaborations, licenses or other similar arrangements. We do not currently have any committed external source of funds other than the $30 million loan facility. To the extent that we raise additional capital through the sale of equity or convertible debt securities, your ownership interest may be diluted, and the terms of these securities may include liquidation or other preferences that adversely affect your rights as a common stockholder. Debt financing and preferred equity financing may involve agreements that include covenants limiting or restricting our ability to take specific actions, such as incurring additional debt or making capital expenditures. Such restrictions could adversely impact our ability to conduct our operations and execute our business plan. If we raise additional funds through grants, collaborations, licenses or other similar arrangements with third parties, we may be required to relinquish valuable rights to our future revenue streams, intellectual property or product candidates, grant licenses on terms that may not be favorable to us and/or that may reduce the value of our common stock or commit us to future payment streams. If we are unable to raise additional funds through equity or debt financings when needed or on terms acceptable to us, we may be required to delay, limit, reduce or terminate our product development or future commercialization efforts or grant rights to develop and market product candidates that we would otherwise prefer to develop and market ourselves, or on less favorable terms than we would otherwise choose.

We maintain the majority of our cash and cash equivalents in accounts with major U.S. and multi-national financial institutions, and our deposits at certain of these institutions exceed insured limits. Market conditions and changes in financial regulations and policies can impact the viability of these institutions. In the event of failure of any of the financial institutions where we maintain our cash and cash equivalents, there can be no assurance that we would be able to access uninsured funds in a timely manner or at all. Any inability to access or delay in accessing these funds could adversely affect our business and financial position. In addition, changes in regulations governing financial institutions are beyond our control and difficult to predict; consequently, the impact of such changes on our business and results of operations is difficult to predict and may have an adverse effect on us.

The terms of our loan and security agreement place restrictions on our operating and financial flexibility. If we raise additional capital through debt financing, the terms of any new debt could further restrict our ability to operate our business.

Our Loan and Security Agreement, or LSA, with Banc of California provides us with up to $30.0 million of borrowing capacity. Our overall leverage, certain obligations and affirmative and negative covenants contained in the related documentation could adversely affect our financial health and business and future operations by limiting our ability to, among other things, satisfy our obligations under the LSA, refinance our debt on terms acceptable to us or at all, plan for and adjust to changing business, industry and market conditions, use our available cash flow to fund future acquisitions and make dividend payments, and obtain additional financing for working capital, to fund growth or for general corporate purposes, even when necessary to maintain adequate liquidity. With certain exceptions, the LSA prohibits us from taking certain actions without Banc of California’s prior consent, including, but not limited to any material transfers of our assets, changes in our business, management, directorship (in certain circumstances), ownership, or business locations; certain mergers or consolidations; incurring any indebtedness, other than permitted indebtedness; granting or permitting liens against our assets, other than permitted liens; making certain capitalized expenditures; entering into any material transaction with any affiliate, other than in the ordinary course of business; or making any payments in respect of any subordinated debt.

We intend to satisfy our current and future debt service obligations with our cash and cash equivalents and short-term investments and funds from external sources. However, we may not have sufficient funds or may be unable to arrange for additional financing to pay the amounts due under our existing debt. Funds from external sources may not be available on acceptable terms, if at all. Additionally, if we raise any additional debt financing, the terms of such additional debt could further restrict our operating and financial flexibility. In the event of an acceleration of amounts

due as a result of an event of default, we may not have sufficient funds and may be unable to arrange for additional financing to repay our indebtedness, and our lender could seek to enforce security interests in the collateral securing such indebtedness. Any declaration by the lender of an event of default could significantly harm our business and prospects and could cause the price of our common stock to decline. Further, if we are liquidated, the lenders’ right to repayment would be senior to the rights of the holders of our common stock to receive any proceeds from the liquidation.

Risks Related to the Discovery and Development of Our Product Candidates

We are substantially dependent on the success of our lead candidates, AP01 and AP02. If we are unable to advance such product candidates into later-stage clinical development or unable to obtain regulatory approval and commercialize a therapy for the treatment of pulmonary fibrosis, or PF, or experience significant delays in doing so, our business will be materially harmed.

To date, as an organization, we have not completed the development of any product candidates. We are substantially dependent on the success of at least one of our product candidates, including AP01, which is currently in Phase 2b clinical development for the treatment of PPF and AP02, which is currently in Phase 2 clinical development for the treatment of IPF.

The success of AP01, AP02, and our other current and any future product candidates will depend on several factors, including the following:

If we are unable to develop, receive marketing approval for and successfully commercialize our product candidates, or if we experience delays as a result of any of the above factors or otherwise, our business would be significantly harmed.

We are early in our development efforts. If we are unable to successfully develop, receive regulatory approval for and commercialize any product candidate or successfully develop any other product candidate or experience significant delays in doing so, our business will be substantially harmed.

We are early in our development efforts. Each of our product candidates will require additional preclinical and/or clinical development, regulatory approval, obtaining manufacturing supply, capacity and expertise, building a commercial organization or successfully outsourcing commercialization, substantial investment and significant marketing efforts before we generate any revenue from product sales.

Our assumptions about the development potential of AP01 and AP02 are based on the data generated from our clinical trials and from preclinical studies. We may also observe materially and adversely different safety results as we continue to conduct our clinical trials.

Our product candidates will require substantial additional investment, clinical development, regulatory review, approval in one or more jurisdictions and significant marketing efforts before we could generate any revenue from product sales, if ever. Given our stage of development, it will take additional clinical development before we can demonstrate the safety and efficacy of a product candidate sufficient to warrant approval for commercialization, if we can do so at all.

We do not have complete control over many of these factors, including certain aspects of clinical development and the regulatory submission process, potential threats to our intellectual property rights and the manufacturing, marketing, distribution and sales efforts of any future collaborator. If we are not successful with respect to one or more of these factors in a timely manner or at all, we could experience significant delays or an inability to successfully commercialize the product candidates we develop, which would materially harm our business. If we do not receive marketing approvals for our product candidates or any future product candidate we develop or if we experience delays in such approvals, we may not be able to continue our operations.

Further, conducting clinical trials in foreign countries, as we are currently doing, presents additional risks that may delay completion of our clinical trials. These risks include the failure of enrolled patients in foreign countries to adhere to clinical protocol as a result of differences in healthcare services or cultural customs, failure to properly translate or interpret patient-reported outcome endpoints, managing additional administrative burdens associated with foreign regulatory schemes as well as political and economic risks relevant to such foreign countries.

The foregoing makes our ability to successfully and timely complete development of our product candidates and obtain regulatory approval for them less certain. If we are unable to develop, or obtain marketing approval for, or, if approved, successfully commercialize our product candidates, our business, financial condition, results of operations and prospects could be materially harmed.

Additional time may be required to obtain marketing authorizations for product candidates that we develop as drug-device combination products.

Our nebulizer-delivered product candidates, AP01 and AP02, are subject to combination product development and approval regulatory requirements. Development of a product candidate as a combination product candidate requires close coordination with the FDA and comparable foreign regulatory authorities for review of each of the drug

and device components that comprise the product. Although the FDA and comparable foreign regulatory authorities have or may have systems in place for the review and approval of such combination products, we may experience additional delays in the development and commercialization of such product candidates due to regulatory timing constraints and uncertainties in the product development and approval process.

The regulatory approval processes of the FDA, European Medicines Agency, or EMA, and comparable foreign authorities are lengthy, time-consuming and inherently unpredictable. If we are not able to obtain the required regulatory approval for any product candidate, our business will be substantially harmed.

We are not permitted to market, commercialize, sell or promote any product candidate in the U.S. until we receive regulatory approval of a new drug application, or NDA, for such product candidate in a specific indication from the FDA. Our business is dependent on our ability to successfully complete preclinical and clinical development of, obtain regulatory approval for, and, if approved, successfully commercialize our product candidates and any future product candidates in a timely manner. The time required to obtain approval or other marketing authorizations by the FDA and comparable foreign authorities is unpredictable, and it typically takes many years following the commencement of clinical trials and depends upon numerous factors, including the substantial discretion of the regulatory authorities. In addition, approval policies, regulations and the type and amount of clinical data necessary to gain approval may change during the course of a product candidate’s clinical development and may vary among jurisdictions. We have not obtained regulatory approval for any product candidate, and it is possible that we may never obtain regulatory approval for any product candidates we may seek to develop in the future.

Prior to obtaining approval to commercialize any product candidate in the U.S. or abroad, we must demonstrate with substantial evidence from well-controlled clinical trials, to the satisfaction of the FDA, EMA or comparable foreign regulatory authorities, that such product candidates are safe and effective for their intended uses. Results from preclinical studies and clinical trials can be interpreted in different ways. Even if we believe the preclinical or clinical data for our product candidates are promising, such data may not be sufficient to support approval by the FDA, EMA and other regulatory authorities. The FDA may also require us to conduct additional preclinical studies or clinical trials for our product candidates either prior to or after approval, or it may object to elements of our clinical development programs. For example, in July 2025, the FDA commented on AP02 findings considered to be non-adverse and/or species specific in a rat toxicology study ahead of IND submission. Due to this, we proceeded to initiate our Phase 2 clinical trial outside of the United States and intend to submit such IND with the safety and efficacy clinical data from our Phase 2 trial, if successful, to potentially enable future FDA IND clearance.

Our current and future product candidates could fail to receive regulatory approval for many reasons, including the following:

Of the large number of products in development, only a small percentage successfully complete the FDA or foreign regulatory approval processes and are commercialized. The lengthy approval and marketing authorization process as well as the unpredictability of future clinical trial results may result in our failing to obtain regulatory approval to market our product candidates, which would significantly harm our business, financial condition, results of operations and prospects. The FDA, EMA and comparable foreign authorities have substantial discretion in the approval process and determining when or whether regulatory approval will be granted for any product candidate that we develop. The U.S. Supreme Court’s July 2024 decision to overturn prior established case law giving deference to regulatory agencies’ interpretations of ambiguous statutory language has introduced uncertainty regarding the extent to which the FDA’s regulations, policies and decisions may become subject to increasing legal challenges, delays or changes. Even if we believe the data collected from future clinical trials of our product candidates are promising, such data may not be sufficient to support approval by the FDA, EMA or any other regulatory authority.

Even if we complete clinical testing and receive approval of a NDA or foreign marketing application for our current or future product candidates, the FDA, EMA or the applicable foreign regulatory agency may grant approval or other marketing authorization contingent on the performance of costly additional clinical trials, including post-marketing clinical trials. The FDA, EMA or the applicable foreign regulatory agency also may approve or authorize for marketing a product candidate for a more limited indication or patient population than we originally request, and the FDA, EMA or applicable foreign regulatory authority may not approve or authorize the labeling that we believe is necessary or desirable for the successful commercialization of a product candidate. Any delay in obtaining, or inability to obtain, applicable regulatory approval or other marketing authorization, or failure to obtain our desired product label, would delay or prevent commercialization of that product candidate and would materially adversely impact our business and prospects.

In addition, the FDA, EMA and other regulatory authorities may change their policies, issue additional regulations or revise existing regulations or take other actions, which may prevent or delay approval of our future product candidates under development on a timely basis. Such policy or regulatory changes could impose additional requirements upon us that could delay our ability to obtain approvals, increase the costs of compliance or restrict our ability to maintain any marketing authorizations we may have obtained. Further, macroeconomic and other global conditions have impacted and could in the future impact the ability of the FDA, EMA and comparable foreign regulatory authorities to provide any required approvals or marketing authorizations for our product candidates or result in the delay of such approvals or authorizations.

Preclinical and clinical product development involves a lengthy and expensive process, with an uncertain outcome.

Our current assumptions about our product candidates’ development potential are based on the data generated from preclinical studies and clinical trials; however, we may observe materially and adversely different safety results as we continue to conduct our clinical trials. In order to obtain FDA, EMA or other comparable foreign regulatory authorities approval to market a new drug product, we must demonstrate the safety and efficacy of the drug in humans in a manner that satisfies the applicable authority’s standards. It is impossible to predict when or if any of our product candidates will prove effective or safe in humans or will receive regulatory approval. Before obtaining marketing approval from regulatory authorities, including the FDA, EMA and comparable foreign regulatory authorities, we must complete preclinical development and then conduct extensive clinical trials to demonstrate the safety, potency and efficacy of our product candidates in humans. A failure of one or more clinical trials can occur at any stage of testing or at any time during the trial process. The outcome of preclinical testing and early clinical trials may not be predictive of the results of later clinical trials as to safety or efficacy, particularly if later clinical trials have a materially different trial design. The historical failure rate for product candidates in our industry is high, particularly in the earlier stages of development. Moreover, preclinical and clinical data are often susceptible to varying interpretations and analyses, and many companies that have believed their product candidates performed satisfactorily in preclinical studies and clinical trials have nonetheless failed to obtain marketing approval of their products.

We have not completed all of the clinical trials required for the approval of any of our product candidates. We cannot assure you that any preclinical study or clinical trial that we are conducting, or may conduct in the future, will demonstrate consistent or adequate efficacy and safety to obtain regulatory approval to market our product candidates in the United States or in any other jurisdiction.

Additionally, we have in the past and intend in the future to utilize an “open-label” clinical trial design for certain of our clinical trials. An “open-label” clinical trial is one where both the patient and investigator know whether the patient is receiving the investigational product candidate or either an existing approved drug or placebo. Most open-label clinical trials test only the investigational product candidate and sometimes may do so at different dose levels. Open-label clinical trials are subject to various limitations that may exaggerate any therapeutic effect as patients in open-label clinical trials are aware when they are receiving treatment. Open-label clinical trials may be subject to a “patient bias” where patients perceive their symptoms to have improved merely due to their awareness of receiving an experimental treatment. In addition, open-label clinical trials may be subject to an “investigator bias” where those assessing and reviewing the physiological outcomes of the clinical trials are aware of which patients have received treatment and may interpret the information of the treated group more favorably given this knowledge. The results from an open-label trial may not be predictive of future clinical trial results of a product candidate when studied in a controlled environment with a placebo or active control.

We may incur additional costs and experience delays in completing, or ultimately be unable to complete, the development and commercialization of our product candidates.

We may incur additional costs and experience delays in ongoing clinical trials for our product candidates, and we do not know whether future clinical trials, if any, will begin on time, need to be redesigned, enroll an adequate number of patients on time or be completed on schedule, if at all. We may experience numerous unforeseen events during or as a result of preclinical studies or clinical trials that could delay or prevent our ability to continue or complete clinical development, receive marketing approval or commercialize our product candidates, including:

If we are required to conduct additional clinical trials or other testing of our product candidates beyond those that we currently contemplate, if we are unable to successfully complete clinical trials of our product candidates or other testing, if the results of these trials or tests are not favorable or if there are safety concerns, we may, among other things:

Moreover, principal investigators for our current and future clinical trials have in the past and may in the future serve as scientific advisors or consultants to us from time to time and receive compensation in connection with such services. Under certain circumstances, we may be required to report some of these relationships to the FDA or comparable foreign regulatory authorities. The FDA or a comparable foreign regulatory authority may conclude that a financial relationship between us and a principal investigator has created a conflict of interest or otherwise affected interpretation of the study. The FDA or a comparable foreign regulatory authority may therefore question the integrity of the data generated at the applicable clinical trial site and the utility of the clinical trial itself may be jeopardized. This could result in a delay in approval, or rejection, of our marketing applications by the FDA or a comparable foreign regulatory authority, as the case may be, and may ultimately lead to the denial of marketing approval.

We have not yet completed all testing of any product candidate in clinical trials. Preclinical, interim, topline and preliminary results from our preclinical studies or clinical trials are not necessarily predictive of the results or analyses of such results of later clinical trials. If we cannot replicate the positive results from any preclinical studies or clinical trials of our current or potential future product candidates that have positive results, or if we suffer any other significant setbacks in our later clinical trials, we may be unable to successfully develop, obtain regulatory approval for and commercialize our current or potential future product candidates.

Success in preclinical testing and early clinical trials does not ensure that later clinical trials will generate the same results or otherwise provide adequate data to demonstrate the efficacy and safety of a product candidate. Preclinical studies, Phase 1 and Phase 2a clinical trials are primarily designed to test safety, to study pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics, and to understand the side effects of product candidates at various doses and dosing schedules. Success in preclinical or animal studies and early clinical trials does not ensure that later large-scale efficacy trials will be successful, nor does it predict final results. Our product candidates may fail to show the desired safety, tolerability, PK profile, and efficacy in clinical development despite positive results in preclinical studies or having successfully advanced through initial clinical trials, particularly because of our product candidates leveraging an inhalation approach.

Many companies in the pharmaceutical and biotechnology industries have suffered significant setbacks in late-stage clinical trials even after achieving promising results in preclinical testing and earlier-stage clinical trials. Such

setbacks have occurred and may occur for many reasons, including: clinical sites and investigators may deviate from clinical trial protocols, whether due to lack of training or otherwise, and we may fail to detect any such deviations in a timely manner; patients may fail to adhere to any required clinical trial procedures, including post-treatment follow-up; our product candidates may fail to demonstrate effectiveness or safety in certain patient subpopulations or at all; or our clinical trials may not adequately represent the patient populations we intend to treat, whether due to limitations in our trial designs or otherwise. Data obtained from preclinical and clinical activities are subject to varying interpretations, which may delay, limit or prevent regulatory approval. In addition, we may experience regulatory delays or rejections as a result of many factors, including changes in regulatory policy during the period of our product candidate development.

Similarly, from time to time, we may publish interim, topline or preliminary results from our preclinical studies and clinical trials, which are based on a preliminary analysis of then-available data. We also make assumptions, estimations, calculations and conclusions as part of our preliminary analyses of data, and we may not have received or had the opportunity to fully and carefully evaluate all data. As a result, the results and related findings and conclusions are subject to change following a more comprehensive review of the data related to the particular study or trial. Interim results from clinical trials that we may complete are subject to the risk that one or more of the clinical outcomes may materially change as patient enrollment continues and more patient data become available. Preliminary or topline results also remain subject to audit and verification procedures that may result in the final data being materially different from the preliminary data we previously published. As a result, interim, topline and preliminary data should be viewed with caution until the final data are available. Adverse differences between interim, topline or preliminary data and final data could significantly harm our business prospects and may cause the trading price of our common stock to fluctuate significantly.

Further, others, including regulatory agencies, may not accept or agree with our assumptions, estimates, calculations, conclusions or analyses or may interpret or weigh the importance of data differently, which could impact the value of the particular program, the approvability or commercialization of the particular product candidate or product and our company in general. In addition, the information we choose to publicly disclose regarding a particular study or clinical trial is based on what is typically extensive information, and investors or others may not agree with what we determine is material or otherwise appropriate information to include in our disclosure. If the interim, topline or preliminary data that we report differ from actual results, or if others, including regulatory authorities, disagree with the conclusions reached, our ability to obtain approval for, and commercialize, our product candidates may be harmed, which could harm our business, operating results, prospects or financial condition.

Targeting PF with inhaled formulations of antifibrotic therapies is novel, and we do not know whether we will be able to successfully develop any inhaled products.

Our product candidates target PF with an inhaled formulation approach. Other companies have discontinued programs targeting PF as they were unable to develop compounds that could demonstrate safety or efficacy or whose dosing regimens were commercially unviable. Given our approach, we may not be able to successfully develop any products.

The PF market currently relies on oral systemic medications: nintedanib, pirfenidone, and nerandomilast. We aim to optimize inhaled formulations of the current oral antifibrotic medicines, as with AP01 and AP02, inhaled formulations of pirfenidone or nintedanib, for potentially improved safety and efficacy. While products for the treatment of PF have been approved by the FDA and comparable foreign regulatory authorities, to date, no inhaled antifibrotic therapy of pirfenidone or nintedanib, or combination of pirfenidone and nintedanib, has been approved, and to our knowledge, no product candidate combining these agents in an inhaled formulation is currently in clinical development. As a result, it is difficult to predict the developmental challenges we may encounter as our lead product candidates proceed through clinical trials, including our planned future clinical trials. It is also difficult for us to predict the time and cost of development, whether any of our clinical trials will be successful, whether any unexpected side effects that have not been associated with oral nintedanib and pirfenidone will be identified in our product development activities and whether our novel approach will result in the successful development and regulatory approval of any product candidates. For example, although we have not observed this to date in clinical trials, airway irritation is a potential risk for inhaled administration, which can be manifested by coughing, increased secretions, or bronchospasm.

Any development problems we experience in the future related to our lead product candidates may cause significant delays or unanticipated costs, and such development problems may not be able to be solved. The novelty of our approach may lengthen the regulatory review process, require us to conduct additional studies or clinical trials, increase our development costs, lead to changes in regulatory positions and interpretations, delay or prevent approval and commercialization of our product candidates or lead to significant post-approval limitations or restrictions. For example, the FDA could require additional studies that may be difficult or impossible to perform, or prohibitively costly. Any of these factors may prevent us from completing clinical trials that we may initiate, and obtaining regulatory approval of or commercializing any product candidates we may develop, on a timely or profitable basis, if at all.

Our preclinical studies and clinical trials may fail to demonstrate the safety and efficacy of our product candidates, or serious or unacceptable adverse side effects or unexpected toxicology findings may be identified during the development of our product candidates, which could prevent or delay further clinical development, regulatory approvals and commercialization, impact the product’s labeling, if approved, increase our costs or necessitate the abandonment or limitation of the development of some of our product candidates.

Clinical trials often fail to demonstrate safety or efficacy of the product candidate studied for the target indication. If our product candidates are associated with serious or significant adverse side effects in clinical trials or have adverse safety findings in nonclinical studies, we may need to abandon their development or limit development to more narrow uses in which the side effects or other characteristics are less prevalent, less severe or more acceptable from a benefit-risk perspective. The FDA, EMA or other comparable foreign regulatory authority or an institutional review board or ethics committee may also require that we suspend, discontinue or limit our clinical trials based on safety information, or that we conduct additional animal or human studies regarding the safety and efficacy of our product candidates, which we have not planned or anticipated. For example, in July 2025, the FDA commented on AP02 findings considered to be non-adverse and/or species specific in a rat toxicology study ahead of IND submission. Due to this, we proceeded to initiate our Phase 2 clinical trial outside of the United States and intend to submit such IND with the safety and efficacy data from our Phase 2 trial, if successful, to potentially enable future FDA IND clearance. If we are unable to obtain IND clearance from the FDA for AP02, our market opportunity may be adversely affected, and we may have to expend additional resources to complete additional preclinical testing if required by the FDA. There is no guarantee that our efforts or further testing, if required, will be successful or will enable the clearance of an IND by the FDA.

Such findings could further result in regulatory authorities failing to provide marketing authorization for our product candidates or limiting the scope of the indication, if approved. Many product candidates that initially showed promise in early-stage testing have later been found to cause adverse side effects that prevented further development of the product candidate. For example, the long-term safety impacts of our product candidates are unknown and may not be discoverable in preclinical studies or clinical trials that we may conduct. Additionally, if one or more of our product candidates receives marketing approval, and we or others subsequently identify undesirable side effects caused by such products a number of potentially significant negative consequences could result, including:

There can be no assurance that we will resolve any issues related to any product-related AEs to the satisfaction of the FDA, EMA or comparable foreign regulatory authorities in a timely manner or at all. Moreover, any of these events could prevent us from achieving or maintaining market acceptance of a particular product candidate, if approved, and could significantly harm our business, results of operations and prospects.

We have obtained orphan designation for AP01 for the treatment of IPF and may in the future seek orphan drug designation for additional product candidates. Even if we obtain designation, we may be unable to maintain the benefits associated with orphan drug designation, including the potential for market exclusivity.

In July 2014, we obtained orphan drug designation from the FDA for AP01 for the treatment of IPF. We may seek orphan drug designation or exclusivity in the indications targeted by our current or future product candidates. Regulatory authorities in some jurisdictions, including the United States and Europe, may designate drugs for relatively small patient populations as orphan drugs. For example, under the Orphan Drug Act, the FDA may designate a product candidate as an orphan drug if it is intended to treat a rare disease or condition. In order for the FDA to grant orphan drug exclusivity to one of our product candidates, the agency must find that the product candidate is indicated for the treatment of a condition or disease that affects fewer than 200,000 individuals in the U.S. or that affects 200,000 or more individuals in the U.S. and for which there is no reasonable expectation that the cost of developing and making the product candidate available for the disease or condition will be recovered from sales of the product in the U.S. Orphan drug designation must be requested before submitting an NDA. The FDA may conclude that the condition or disease for which we seek orphan drug exclusivity does not meet the required standard.

If a product that has orphan drug designation subsequently receives the first FDA approval for a particular drug for the disease for which it has such designation, the product is entitled to orphan product exclusivity, which means that the FDA may not approve any other applications to market the same drug for the same indication for seven years, except in limited circumstances such as if the FDA finds that the holder of the orphan drug exclusivity has not shown that it can assure the availability of sufficient quantities of the orphan drug to meet the needs of patients with the disease or condition for which the drug was designated.

In addition, even after an orphan drug is approved, the FDA can subsequently approve the same product candidate for the same condition if the FDA concludes that the later product candidate is clinically superior in that it is shown to be safer, more effective or makes a major contribution to patient care compared with the product that has orphan exclusivity. In the U.S., orphan drug designation entitles a party to financial incentives such as opportunities for grant funding towards clinical trial costs, tax advantages, and user-fee waivers. After the FDA grants orphan drug designation, the generic identity of the drug or biologic and its potential orphan use are disclosed publicly by the FDA. Orphan drug designation does not convey any advantage in, or shorten the duration of, the regulatory review and approval process.

A similar regulatory scheme governs approval of orphan product candidates by the EMA in the European Union. Generally, if a product with an orphan drug designation subsequently receives the first marketing approval for the indication for which it has such designation, the product is entitled to a period of marketing exclusivity, which precludes the FDA or the EMA (as applicable) from approving another marketing application for the same or another similar product candidate for the same orphan therapeutic indication for that time period. The applicable period is seven years in the U.S. and ten years in the European Union. The exclusivity period in the European Union can be reduced to six years if at the end of the fifth year it is determined that a product no longer meets the criteria for orphan designation, including if the product is sufficiently profitable so that market exclusivity is no longer justified.

While we may in the future seek designations for our product candidates with the FDA, EMA and comparable foreign regulatory authorities that are intended to confer benefits such as a faster development process, an

accelerated regulatory pathway or priority review, there can be no assurance that we will successfully obtain such designations. In addition, even if one or more of our product candidates are granted such designations, we may not be able to realize the intended benefits of such designations.

The FDA, EMA and comparable regulatory authorities offer certain designations for product candidates that are designed to encourage the research and development of product candidates that are intended to address conditions with significant unmet medical need. These designations may confer benefits such as additional interaction with regulatory authorities, a potentially accelerated regulatory pathway and priority review of the marketing application(s). However, there can be no assurance that we will successfully obtain such designations for our product candidates. In addition, while such designations could expedite the development or approval process, they generally do not change the standards of product quality, safety or efficacy required to be demonstrated in support of approval. Even if we obtain such designations for our product candidates, there can be no assurance that we will realize their intended benefits.

For example, we may seek a Fast Track Designation for one or more of our product candidates. If a product is intended for the treatment of a serious or life-threatening condition and preclinical or clinical data demonstrate the potential to address an unmet medical need for this condition, the product sponsor may apply for Fast Track Designation. The FDA has broad discretion whether or not to grant this designation, so even if we believe a particular product candidate is eligible for this designation, we cannot assure you that the FDA would decide to grant it. Even if we do receive Fast Track Designation, we may not experience a faster development process, review or approval compared to conventional FDA procedures. The FDA may rescind the Fast Track Designation if it believes that the designation is no longer supported by data from our clinical development activities.

We may seek Breakthrough Therapy Designation for any product candidate that we develop. A breakthrough therapy is defined as a drug that is intended, alone or in combination with one or more other drugs, to treat a serious or life-threatening disease or condition, and preliminary clinical evidence indicates that the drug may demonstrate substantial improvement over currently approved therapies on one or more clinically significant endpoints, such as substantial treatment effects observed early in clinical development. For drugs that have been designated as breakthrough therapies, interaction and communication between the FDA and the sponsor of the trial can help to identify the most efficient path for clinical development while minimizing the number of patients placed in ineffective control regimens. Drugs designated as breakthrough therapies by the FDA are also eligible for accelerated approval and priority review.

Designation as a breakthrough therapy is within the discretion of the FDA. Accordingly, even if we believe one of our product candidates meets the criteria for designation as a breakthrough therapy, the FDA may disagree and instead determine not to make such designation. Further, the receipt of Breakthrough Therapy Designation for a product candidate may not result in a faster development process, review or approval compared to conventional FDA procedures and does not assure approval by the FDA. In addition, even if any product candidate we develop qualifies for Breakthrough Therapy Designation, the FDA may later decide that the drug no longer meets the conditions for qualification and rescind the designation.

Even in the absence of obtaining Fast Track and/or Breakthrough Therapy Designations, a sponsor can seek priority review at the time of submitting a marketing application. The FDA may designate a product for priority review if it is a product that treats a serious condition and, if approved, would provide a significant improvement in safety or effectiveness when compared with other available therapies. Significant improvement may be illustrated by evidence of increased effectiveness in the treatment of a condition, elimination or substantial reduction of a treatment-limiting adverse reaction, documented enhancement of patient compliance that may lead to improvement in serious outcomes, or evidence of safety and effectiveness in a new subpopulation. A priority review designation is intended to direct overall attention and resources to the evaluation of such applications, and to shorten the FDA’s goal for taking action on a marketing application from ten months to six months from FDA’s acceptance of the application for review. Priority review designation may be rescinded if a product no longer meets the qualifying criteria.

We may not be able to submit investigational new drug, or IND, applications or IND amendments to commence clinical trials on the timelines we expect, and even if we are able to, the FDA may not permit us to proceed.

We may not be able to submit INDs, including the IND for our lead product candidates, on the timelines we expect. We may experience manufacturing delays or other delays with IND-enabling studies or it may require time to align with the FDA or comparable regulatory authorities on data packages. For example, in July 2025, the FDA commented on AP02 findings considered to be non-adverse and/or species specific in a rat toxicology study ahead of IND submission. Due to this, we proceeded to initiate our Phase 2 clinical trial outside of the United States and intend to submit such IND with the safety and efficacy data from our Phase 2 trial, if successful, to potentially enable future FDA IND clearance. If we are unable to obtain IND clearance from the FDA for AP02, our market opportunity may be adversely affected, and we may have to expend additional resources to complete additional preclinical testing if required by the FDA. There is no guarantee that our efforts or further testing, if required, will be successful or will enable the clearance of an IND by the FDA. Moreover, we cannot be sure that submission of an IND will result in the FDA allowing clinical trials to begin, or that, issues will not arise that suspend or terminate clinical trials. Additionally, even if such regulatory authorities agree with the design and implementation of the clinical trials set forth in an IND, we cannot guarantee that such regulatory authorities will not change their requirements in the future. These considerations also apply to new clinical trials we may submit as amendments to existing INDs.

We intend to deliver AP01 and AP02 and our other product candidates via a drug delivery device that will have its own regulatory, development, supply and other risks.

We intend to deliver AP01 and AP02 and our other product candidates via a drug delivery device, a nebulizer, and there may be unforeseen technical complications related to the development activities required to bring such a product to market, including container compatibility and/or dose volume requirements. AP01 and AP02 and our other product candidates which may be delivered via drug delivery devices may not be approved or may be substantially delayed in receiving approval if the devices do not gain and/or maintain their own regulatory approvals or clearances. Where approval of the drug product and device is sought under a single application, the increased complexity of the review process may delay approval.

We benefit from an exclusive license to PARI’s eRapid® Nebulizer System with eFlow® Technology for AP01’s delivery, and we retain an exclusive right to negotiate a separate license agreement with respect to AP02 and AP03 for exclusive licenses for PARI’s eRapid® Nebulizer System with eFlow® Technology. This exclusivity offers a key competitive advantage, as the proprietary device would be included in any potential U.S. FDA-approved product labels, however, we cannot guarantee that we will maintain preferable commercial terms for such license. We are dependent on the sustained cooperation and effort of PARI both to supply the device and, in some cases, to conduct the studies required for approval or other regulatory clearance of the device, and if received, we expect we will be dependent on PARI for continuing to maintain such approvals or clearances. Failure of PARI to supply the device, to successfully complete studies on the device or for any future devices we may utilize for any of our product candidates in a timely manner, or to obtain or maintain required approvals or clearances of the devices could result in increased development costs, delays in or failure to obtain regulatory approval, and delays in our product candidates reaching the market initially and/or expanding to new indications. For more information on the PARI Agreement, see “Business—Material Agreements”.

Any product candidate for which we obtain marketing approval could be subject to restrictions or withdrawal from the market, and we may be subject to substantial penalties if we fail to comply with regulatory requirements or if we experience unanticipated problems with our products, when and if any of them are approved.

As part of its decision to approve or grant marketing authorization for one or more of our product candidates, the FDA, European Commission, or EC, or other regulatory agencies may require us to perform certain post-marketing activities, such as completion of ongoing or planned studies, initiation of new studies or post-marketing clinical trials (including to assess safety risks), or additional analyses of existing data. Typically, we are required to provide annual updates on the progress of such required activities and to complete the activities by the assigned completion dates. Later discovery of previously unknown problems with our product candidates, including AEs of unanticipated severity

or frequency, or with our third-party manufacturers or manufacturing processes, or failure to comply with regulatory requirements, may result in, among other things:

Additionally, the FDA, EC and other regulatory agencies closely regulate the post-approval marketing and promotion of medicines to ensure that they are marketed only for the approved indications and in accordance with the provisions of the approved labeling. Although physicians may prescribe products for uses not described in the product’s labeling, known as off-label uses, in their professional medical judgment, the FDA, EMA and comparable foreign regulatory agencies impose stringent restrictions on manufacturers’ communications regarding off-label use, and if we market our products, if approved, in a manner inconsistent with their approved labeling, we may be subject to enforcement action for off-label marketing by the FDA and other federal and state enforcement agencies, including the Department of Justice and other comparable foreign regulatory agencies. Violation of the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act and other statutes, including the False Claims Act, relating to the promotion and advertising of prescription products may also lead to investigations or allegations of violations of federal and state healthcare fraud and abuse laws, state consumer protection laws and laws of other comparable foreign regulatory agencies.

Any government investigation of alleged violations of law could require us to expend significant time and resources in response and could generate negative publicity. The occurrence of any event or penalty described above may inhibit our ability to commercialize any product candidates we develop and adversely affect our business, financial condition, results of operations and prospects.

If we experience delays or difficulties in the enrollment and/or retention of patients in clinical trials, our clinical development activities could be delayed or otherwise adversely affected, and our receipt of necessary regulatory approvals could be delayed or prevented.

Successful and timely completion of clinical trials will require that we identify and enroll a sufficient number of patients. Patient enrollment, a significant factor in the timing of clinical trials, is affected by many factors, including the size and nature of the patient population and competition for patients with other trials. Trials may be subject to delays as a result of patient enrollment taking longer than anticipated or patient withdrawal. We may not be able to initiate or continue clinical trials for our product candidates if we are unable to locate and enroll a sufficient number of eligible patients to participate in these trials as required by the FDA, EMA or comparable foreign regulatory authorities, or if a large number of patients withdraw.

For example, we are initially developing AP02 for the treatment of IPF, which is an orphan indication. In the United States, IPF is estimated to affect approximately 120,000 patients. As a result, we may encounter difficulties enrolling subjects in our clinical trials due, in part, to the small size of the patient population. If our target patient population is smaller than expected, we are unable to successfully enroll and retain patients in our clinical trials, or experience significant delays in doing so, we may not satisfy the FDA or other applicable regulatory authorities standards for number of patients enrolled due to enrollment being too low.

We cannot predict how successful we will be at enrolling subjects in future clinical trials. We may conduct clinical trials that would require patients to discontinue standard of care therapy, and we may experience challenges finding, enrolling and retaining PF patients in our planned clinical trials who are willing to discontinue their current treatment regimens to participate in our trials. Subject enrollment is affected by other factors including:

Our inability to enroll a sufficient number of patients for clinical trials would result in significant delays and could require us to abandon one or more clinical trials altogether. For example, we experienced delays in enrollment for our Phase 2b MIST clinical trial at the outset, due to a variety of factors, including operational efficiencies as well as screen failure rates. Enrollment delays in these clinical trials may result in increased development costs for our product candidates, which would cause the value of our company to decline and limit our ability to obtain additional financing. Furthermore, we expect to rely on CROs and clinical trial sites to ensure the proper and timely conduct of our clinical trials and we will have limited influence over their performance.

Furthermore, even if we are able to enroll a sufficient number of patients for our clinical trials, we may have difficulty maintaining enrollment of such patients. We cannot assure you that our assumptions used in determining expected clinical trial timelines are correct or that we will not experience delays or difficulties in enrollment, or be required by the FDA or comparable foreign regulatory authorities to increase our enrollment, which would result in the delay of completion of such trials beyond our expected timelines.

The results of clinical trials conducted at clinical trial sites outside the U.S. might not be accepted by the FDA, and data developed outside of a foreign jurisdiction similarly might not be accepted by such foreign regulatory authority.

We are currently conducting our Phase 2 clinical trial for AP01 in the United Kingdom, Spain, France, Germany, Italy, Turkey, Argentina, United States and other EU countries, and AP02 in Australia, Canada, Germany, Italy, New Zealand, Spain, Argentina, and the United Kingdom, and may conduct additional clinical trials outside of the U.S. in the future. Clinical trials conducted in Australia using “unapproved therapeutic goods,” or those that have not yet been evaluated by the Therapeutic Goods Association, or TGA, for quality, safety and efficacy, must occur pursuant to either the Clinical Trial Notification Scheme or the Clinical Trial Approval Scheme. In each case, the trial is supervised by a Human Research Ethics Committee, or HREC, an independent review committee set up under the guidelines of the Australian National Health and Medical Research Council that reviews, approves and provides continuing oversight of trial protocols and amendments, and of the methods and material to be used in obtaining and documenting informed consent of the trial subjects. Although the FDA, EMA or comparable foreign regulatory authorities may accept data from clinical trials conducted outside the relevant jurisdiction, acceptance of these data is subject to certain conditions. For example, the FDA requires that the clinical trial must be well-designed and conducted and performed by qualified investigators in accordance with ethical principles such as institutional review board or ethics committee approval and informed consent, the trial population must adequately represent the U.S. population and the data must

be applicable to the U.S. population and U.S. medical practice in ways that the FDA deems clinically meaningful. Further, the FDA may consider an on-site inspection to be necessary in which case they must be able to validate the data through such an inspection or other appropriate means. In addition, while these clinical trials are subject to the applicable local laws, acceptance of the data by the FDA will be dependent upon its determination that the trials were conducted consistent with all applicable U.S. laws and regulations. There can be no assurance that the FDA will accept data from trials conducted outside of the U.S. as adequate support of a marketing application. Similarly, any data submitted to foreign regulatory authorities may not adhere to their standards and requirements for clinical trials and data from trials conducted outside of such jurisdiction may not be accepted. Moreover, cultural and population differences across populations participating in trials conducted with sites outside the U.S. could introduce confounding factors that impact interpretation of the results from foreign clinical trial sites.

If the FDA, EMA or any comparable foreign regulatory authority does not accept such data, it would result in the need for additional trials, which could be costly and time-consuming, and which may result in current or future product candidates that we may develop not receiving approval for commercialization in the applicable jurisdiction. In addition, such foreign trials would be subject to the applicable local laws and ethics committee requirements of the foreign jurisdictions where the trials are conducted, which may increase costs or time required to complete the clinical trial.

Conducting clinical trials outside the U.S. also exposes us to additional risks, including risks associated with:

If any third-party manufacturer of our product candidates is unable to increase the scale of its production of our product candidates or increase the product yield of its manufacturing, then our manufacturing costs may increase and commercialization may be delayed.

In order to produce sufficient quantities to meet the demand for clinical trials and, if approved, subsequent commercialization of our product candidates, our third-party manufacturers will be required to increase their production and optimize their manufacturing processes while maintaining the quality of our product candidates. The transition to larger scale production could prove difficult. In addition, if our third-party manufacturers are not able to optimize their manufacturing processes to increase the product yield for our product candidates, or if they are unable to produce increased amounts of our product candidates while maintaining the same quality, then we may not be able to meet the demands of clinical trials or market demands, which could decrease our ability to generate profits and have a material adverse impact on our business and results of operations. Additionally, if any such third-party manufacturer cannot achieve compliance with import and export requirements or build a sufficient network of partners for the storage and distribution of our product candidates, our future global commercialization prospects could be materially harmed.

Changes in methods of product candidate manufacturing or formulation may result in additional costs or delay.

As product candidates proceed through preclinical studies to late-stage clinical trials towards potential approval and commercialization, various aspects of the development program, such as manufacturing methods and formulation, may be altered in an effort to optimize processes and product characteristics, and such optimization may not be achieved. Any of these changes could cause our product candidates to perform differently and affect the results of our current or future clinical trials. Such changes may also require additional testing, or notification to or approval by the FDA, EMA or another comparable regulatory authority. This could delay completion of clinical trials, require the conduct of bridging clinical trials or the repetition of one or more clinical trials, increase clinical trial costs, delay approval of our product candidates and jeopardize our ability to commence sales and generate revenue.

We may expend our limited resources to pursue a particular product candidate or indication and fail to capitalize on product candidates or indications that may be more profitable or for which there is a greater likelihood of success.

Because we have limited financial and management resources, we are initially focused on IPF and PPF, and we focus our research and development efforts on certain selected development programs and product candidates. We are currently primarily focused on the development of AP01, AP02 and AP03. As a result, we may forego or delay pursuit of opportunities with other product candidates that later prove to have greater commercial potential. Our resource allocation decisions may cause us to fail to capitalize on viable commercial products or profitable market opportunities. Our spending on current and future development programs and product candidates for specific indications may not yield any commercially viable products. If we do not accurately evaluate the commercial potential or target market for a particular product candidate, we may relinquish valuable rights to that product candidate through collaboration, licensing or other royalty arrangements in cases in which it would have been more advantageous for us to retain sole development and commercialization rights to such product candidate.

We intend to develop AP03 as a fixed-dose combination of pirfenidone and nintedanib. Developing combination treatments increases complexity and risk, including risks of drug-drug interactions, unforeseen side effects or failures in our clinical trials that could delay or prevent their regulatory approval or limit the commercial profile of an approved label. Additionally, certain regulatory authorities may require a demonstration that each component makes a contribution to the claimed effects in addition to demonstrating that the combination is safe and effective for the intended population.

Under the FDA’s combination rule, the FDA generally will not file or approve an NDA for a fixed-dose combination product unless each component of a proposed drug product is shown to make a contribution to the claimed effects and the dosage of each component (amount, frequency, duration) is safe and effective for the intended population. If the FDA or other comparable foreign regulatory authorities require us to conduct one or more clinical trials to support such a demonstration, such as a factorial study, the design, duration, and scope of such clinical trials will be decided upon after further discussions with those agencies and other comparable foreign regulatory authorities. As a result, we are unable to predict with certainty the estimated timing or scope of any future clinical trials of AP03 we may be required to conduct to satisfy these requirements governing fixed dose combination products in various jurisdictions.

The development of AP03 as a combination of pirfenidone and nintedanib in an inhaled formulation may subject us to risks that we would not face if AP03 was being developed as a monotherapy. For example, combining pirfenidone and nintedanib with each other in oral formulation has not been feasible due to their additive side effect profiles. Combination of the two molecules in an inhaled formulation may result in adverse side effects or toxicities that pirfenidone and nintedanib do not produce when used alone (orally or in an inhaled formulation). In addition, pirfenidone and nintedanib may interact with each other in undesirable ways that could negatively impact the efficacy of AP03. Testing products in combination with each other may increase the risk of significant adverse effects or failed clinical trials.

Risks Related to Our Dependence on Third Parties

We are dependent on licensed intellectual property rights pursuant to the PARI Agreement relating to the PARI eFlow® Technology and eRapid® Nebulizer System and we may in the future enter into additional intellectual property licensing agreements on which we could similarly become dependent. If we were to lose our rights to licensed intellectual property, we may not be able to continue developing or commercializing our product candidates, if approved, on the intended timeline. If we breach the PARI Agreement or any other future agreements in which we license the use, development and commercialization rights to our product candidates from third parties or, in certain cases, we fail to meet certain deadlines, we could lose license rights that are important to our business.

We are a party to the PARI License Agreement under which we are granted rights to intellectual property that are important to our business and we may enter into additional license agreements in the future with PARI or other third parties. Pursuant to the PARI License Agreement, we have secured an exclusive license to develop and commercialize our inhaled candidates with PARI’s eFlow® Technology and eRapid® Nebulizer System. The PARI License Agreement imposes, and we expect that future license agreements will impose on us, various development, regulatory and/or commercial diligence obligations, payment of milestones and/or royalties and other obligations. If we fail to comply with our obligations under such agreements, or we are subject to a bankruptcy, the licensor may have the right to terminate the license, in which event we would not be able to market products covered by the license. Our business could suffer, for example, if any current or future licenses terminate, if the licensors fail to abide by the terms of the license, if the licensed patents or other rights are found to be invalid or unenforceable, or if we are unable to enter into necessary licenses on acceptable terms. See “Business—Material Agreements” for additional information on the PARI License Agreement.

We may need to obtain licenses from third parties to advance our research or allow commercialization of our product candidates, and we cannot provide any assurances that third-party patents do not exist that might be enforced against our current product candidates or future products in the absence of such a license. We may fail to obtain any of these licenses on commercially reasonable terms, if at all. Even if we are able to obtain a license, it may be non-exclusive, thereby giving our competitors access to the same intellectual property licensed to us. In that event, we may be required to expend significant time and resources to develop or license replacement intellectual property. If we are unable to do so, we may be unable to develop or commercialize the affected product candidates, which could materially harm our business and the third parties owning such intellectual property rights could seek either an injunction prohibiting our sales, or, with respect to our sales, an obligation on our part to pay royalties and/or other forms of compensation.

In some circumstances, we may not have the right to control the maintenance, prosecution, preparation, filing, enforcement, defense or litigation of patents and patent applications that we license from or license to third parties and may be reliant on our licensors or licensees to do so. We thus cannot be certain that activities such as patent maintenance and prosecution by our licensors have been or will be conducted consistent with our best interests or in compliance with applicable laws and regulations, or will result in valid and enforceable patents and other intellectual property rights. It is possible that our licensors’ infringement proceedings or defense activities may be less vigorous than had we conducted them ourselves or may not be conducted in accordance with our best interests. If our licensors fail to maintain such patents or patent applications, or lose rights to those patents or patent applications, the rights we have licensed may be reduced or eliminated, and our right to develop and commercialize any product candidates that are the subject of such licensed rights and our right to exclude third parties from commercializing competing products could be adversely affected.

Disputes may arise between us and our licensors regarding intellectual property subject to a license agreement, including:

If disputes over intellectual property that we have licensed prevent or impair our ability to maintain our current licensing arrangements on acceptable terms, we may be unable to successfully develop and commercialize the affected product candidates. In addition, we may seek to obtain additional licenses from our licensors and, in connection with obtaining such licenses, we may agree to amend our existing licenses in a manner that may be more favorable to the licensors, including by agreeing to terms that could enable third parties, including our competitors, to receive licenses to a portion of the intellectual property that is subject to our existing licenses and to compete with our product candidates.

Furthermore, if our licenses are terminated, or if the underlying patents fail to provide the intended exclusivity, competitors or other third parties would have the freedom to seek regulatory approval of, and to market, products identical or competitive to ours and we may be required to cease our development and commercialization of certain of our product candidates. Moreover, if disputes over intellectual property that we license prevent or impair our ability to maintain other licensing arrangements on commercially acceptable terms, we may be unable to successfully develop and commercialize the affected product candidates. In addition, certain of these license agreements, may not be assignable by us without the consent of the respective licensor, which may have an adverse effect on our ability to engage in certain transactions.

The PARI License Agreement is, and future license agreements that we enter into are likely to be, complex, and certain provisions in such agreements may be susceptible to multiple interpretations. The resolution of any contract interpretation disagreement that may arise could narrow what we believe to be the scope of our rights to the relevant intellectual property or technology, or increase what we believe to be our financial or other obligations under the relevant agreement, either of which could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition, results of operations and prospects.

We currently rely on, and in the future intend to rely on, third parties to conduct a significant portion of our clinical trials and potential future clinical trials for product candidates, and those third parties may not perform satisfactorily, including failing to meet deadlines for the completion of such trials.

We currently engage CROs and other vendors to conduct our ongoing clinical trials, including our ongoing Phase 2 clinical trials of AP01 and AP02, and similarly expect to engage CROs and other vendors for future clinical trials for these and other product candidates that we may progress to clinical development. We expect to continue to rely on third parties, including but not limited to clinical data management organizations, healthcare institutions operating as clinical sites and clinical investigators, to conduct those clinical trials. Any of these third parties may terminate their engagements with us, some in the event of an uncured material breach and some at any time for convenience. If any of our relationships with these third parties terminate, we may not be able to timely enter into arrangements with alternative third parties or to do so on commercially reasonable terms, if at all. Switching or adding CROs or other vendors involves substantial cost and requires management time and focus. In addition, there is a natural transition period when a new CRO or vendor commences work. As a result, delays may occur, which can materially impact our ability to meet our desired clinical development timelines. We may encounter challenges or delays in our CRO/vendor relationships in the future which may cause a material adverse impact on our business, financial condition and prospects.

In addition, any third parties conducting our clinical trials will not be our employees, and, except for including contractual obligations and remedies for breach of such obligations in our agreements with such third parties, we cannot control whether or not they devote sufficient time and resources to our clinical programs. If these third parties do not successfully carry out their contractual duties or obligations or meet expected deadlines, if they need to be replaced or if the quality or accuracy of the clinical data they obtain is compromised due to the failure to adhere to our clinical protocols, regulatory requirements or for other reasons, our clinical trials may be extended, delayed or terminated and we may not be able to obtain regulatory approvals for or successfully commercialize our product candidates. Consequently, our results of operations and the commercial prospects for our product candidates would be harmed, our costs could increase substantially and our ability to generate revenue could be delayed significantly. In addition, many of the third parties with whom we contract may also have relationships with other commercial entities, including our competitors, for whom they may also be conducting clinical trials or other development activities that could harm our competitive position.

We rely on these parties for execution of our preclinical studies and clinical trials, and generally do not directly control their businesses or related activities. Our reliance on these third parties for research and development activities will reduce our control over these activities but will not relieve us of our responsibilities. For example, we will remain responsible for ensuring that each of our clinical trials is conducted in accordance with the general investigational plan and protocols for the trial. Moreover, the FDA requires us to comply with GCPs for conducting, recording and reporting the results of clinical trials to assure that data and reported results are credible and accurate and that the rights, integrity and confidentiality of trial participants are protected. We also are required to register certain ongoing clinical trials and post the results of completed clinical trials on a government-sponsored database, ClinicalTrials.gov, within specified timeframes. Failure to do so can result in fines, adverse publicity and civil and criminal sanctions. If we or any of our CROs or other third parties, including trial sites, fail to comply with applicable GCPs, the clinical data generated in our clinical trials may be deemed unreliable and the FDA or comparable foreign regulatory authorities may require us to perform additional clinical trials before approving our marketing applications. Further, upon inspection by a given regulatory authority, such regulatory authority may not agree with our determination that any of our clinical trials complies with GCP requirements. In addition, our clinical trials must be conducted with product produced under cGMP conditions. Our failure to comply with these requirements may require us to repeat clinical trials, which would delay the regulatory approval process.

We also expect to rely on other third parties to store and distribute product supplies for our clinical trials. Any performance failure on the part of our distributors could delay clinical development or marketing approval of our product candidates or commercialization of our products, producing additional losses and depriving us of potential revenue.

We contract with third parties for the manufacture of our product candidates for clinical drug and device supply and expect to continue to do so for commercialization, if our product candidates are approved. This reliance on third parties increases the risk that we will not have sufficient quantities of our product candidates or such quantities at an acceptable cost or quality, which could delay, prevent or impair our development or commercialization efforts.

We do not have any cGMP manufacturing facilities and have no plans to develop our own clinical or commercial-scale manufacturing capabilities. We currently rely, and expect to continue to rely, on contract development and manufacturing organizations, or CDMOs, for the cGMP manufacture of our product candidates and related raw materials for clinical development. In addition, we expect to rely on CDMOs for the commercial supply of any products for which we receive marketing approval. This reliance increases the risk that we will not have sufficient quantities of our product candidates or products, if approved, or such quantities at an acceptable cost or quality, which could delay, prevent or impair our development or commercialization efforts. For example, any of these third parties may terminate their engagements with us at any time or may face production shortages or other supply interruptions or otherwise be unable to secure the requisite raw materials to support our planned clinical activities. In addition, the availability of CDMOs to manufacture our product candidates/drugs may depend in part on the CDMOs’ schedules for manufacturing other companies’ products or product candidates. If we need to modify our development plans or enter into alternative arrangements, which may not be readily available or available on acceptable terms, it could delay our product development activities and increase our expenses.

Our reliance on CDMOs for manufacturing activities will reduce our control over these activities, but will not relieve us of our responsibility to ensure compliance with all required regulations. In particular, we do not have control over a supplier’s or manufacturer’s compliance with laws, regulations and applicable cGMP standards or similar regulatory requirements and other laws and regulations, such as those related to environmental health and safety matters. If our CDMOs cannot successfully manufacture material that conforms to our specifications and the strict regulatory requirements of the FDA or comparable foreign regulatory authorities, we may be unable to obtain regulatory approval of our potential future marketing applications. In addition, although we conduct routine qualification audits and have quality agreements in place with our CDMOs, we have no direct operational control over their ability to maintain adequate quality control, quality assurance and qualified personnel. Our CDMOs may face manufacturing or quality control problems causing production and shipment delays, or CDMOs may fail to maintain compliance with the applicable cGMP requirements. The facilities used by our CDMOs are subject to continual review and periodic inspections by the FDA and comparable foreign regulatory authorities. If the FDA or a comparable foreign regulatory authority finds deficiencies with or does not approve these facilities for the manufacture of our product candidates or if it withdraws any such approval in the future, we may need to find alternative manufacturing facilities, which would significantly impact our ability to develop, obtain regulatory approval for or market our product candidates, if approved. Our failure, or the failure of our third-party manufacturers, to comply with applicable regulations could result in sanctions being imposed on us, including clinical holds, fines, injunctions, civil penalties, delays, suspension or withdrawal of approvals, license revocation, seizures or recalls of product candidates or drugs, operating restrictions and criminal prosecutions, any of which could significantly and adversely affect supply of our products.

Our use of foreign CROs and CDMOs in some jurisdictions may be or may become subject to U.S. legislation, including sanctions, trade restrictions and other regulatory requirements, which may increase the cost of and cause delays in the procurement or supply of materials for, or manufacture of, our product candidates or have an adverse effect on our ability to secure significant commitments from governments to purchase its potential therapies.

Moreover, we rely on sole suppliers for certain steps in the manufacturing supply chain of pirfenidone and nintedanib. If these sole suppliers are unable to supply to us in the quantities we require, or at all, or otherwise defaults on their supply obligations to us, we may not be able to obtain alternative supplies from other suppliers on acceptable terms, in a timely manner, or at all. We also do not have long-term supply agreements with any of our suppliers. Our current contracts with certain suppliers may be canceled or not extended by such suppliers and, therefore, do not afford us with protection against a reduction or interruption in supplies. Moreover, in the event any of these suppliers breach their contracts with us, our legal remedies associated with such a breach may be insufficient to compensate us for any damages we may suffer.

Any performance failure on the part of our existing or future manufacturers could delay clinical development or marketing approval. If our current CDMOs cannot perform as agreed, we may be required to replace such manufacturers. We may incur added costs and delays in identifying and qualifying any such replacement. In addition, our current and anticipated dependence upon others for the manufacture of our product candidates may adversely affect our future profit margins and our ability to commercialize any products that receive marketing approval on a timely and competitive basis.

We may seek to establish collaborations, license agreements and other similar arrangements with third parties for the development or commercialization of our product candidates. If we are not able to establish them on commercially reasonable terms, or if those arrangements are not successful, we may have to alter our development and commercialization plans.

The development and potential commercialization of our product candidates will require substantial additional funding. For some of our product candidates, we may seek to collaborate with other pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies for the development and potential commercialization of our product candidates, including for the commercialization of any of our product candidates that are approved for marketing outside the U.S. If we enter into any such additional arrangements with any third parties, we will likely have limited control over the amount and timing of resources that our future collaborators dedicate to the development or commercialization of our product candidates. Collaboration agreements may not lead to development or commercialization of product candidates in the

most efficient manner or at all. If any future collaborator of ours is involved in a business combination, it could decide to delay, diminish or terminate the development or commercialization of any product candidate licensed to it by us.

We face significant competition in seeking appropriate collaborators, and the negotiation process is time-consuming and complex. Whether we reach a definitive agreement for any collaboration will depend, among other things, upon our assessment of the collaborator’s resources and expertise, the terms and conditions of the proposed collaboration and the proposed collaborator’s evaluation of a number of factors. Those factors may include the potential differentiation of our product candidate from competing product candidates, the design or results of clinical trials, the likelihood of approval by the FDA or comparable foreign regulatory authorities outside the U.S., the potential market for the subject product candidate, the costs and complexities of manufacturing and delivering such product candidate to patients, and industry and market conditions generally. The collaborator may also consider alternative product candidates for similar indications that may be available to collaborate on and whether such a collaboration could be more attractive than the one with us for our product candidate. Collaborations are complex and time-consuming to negotiate and document. In addition, there have been a significant number of recent business combinations among large pharmaceutical companies that have resulted in a reduced number of potential future collaborators.

Collaborations involving our product candidates would pose the following risks to us:

We may not be able to negotiate future collaborations on a timely basis, on acceptable terms, or at all. If we are unable to do so, we may have to curtail the development of any product candidate that we planned to collaborate on, reduce or delay its development program or one or more of our other development programs, delay its potential commercialization or reduce the scope of any sales or marketing activities, or increase our expenditures and undertake development or commercialization activities at our own expense. If we elect to increase our expenditures to fund development or commercialization activities on our own, we may need to obtain additional capital, which may not be available to us on acceptable terms or at all. If we do not have sufficient funds, we may not be able to further develop our product candidates or bring them to market and generate revenue, which could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition, results of operations and prospects.

In addition, any future collaborations that we enter into may not be successful. The success of our future collaboration arrangements will depend heavily on the efforts and activities of our future collaborators. Collaborators generally have significant discretion in determining the efforts and resources that they will apply to these collaborations. Disagreements between parties to a collaboration arrangement regarding clinical development and commercialization matters can lead to delays in the development process or commercializing the applicable product candidate and, in some cases, termination of the collaboration arrangement. These disagreements can be difficult to resolve if neither of the parties has final decision-making authority. If conflicts arise between any future collaborators and us, the other party may act in a manner adverse to us and could limit our ability to implement our strategies. For example, our future collaborators could conduct multiple product development efforts and could develop, either alone or with others, products in related fields that are competitive with the product candidates we may develop. In addition, collaborations with pharmaceutical or biotechnology companies and other third parties often are terminated or allowed to expire by the other party, and any such termination or expiration may adversely affect us financially or harm our business.

Risks Related to Our Intellectual Property

If we are unable to obtain and maintain patent protection for any products we develop and for our technology, or if the scope of the patent protection obtained is not sufficiently broad, our competitors or other third parties could develop and commercialize products and technology similar or identical to ours, and our ability to commercialize any product candidates we may develop, and our technology may be adversely affected.

Our success depends in large part on our ability to obtain and maintain patent protection in the United States and other countries for our product candidates and their uses, as well as our ability to operate without infringing, misappropriating, or otherwise violating the proprietary rights of others. We seek to protect our proprietary position by filing patent applications in the United States and abroad related to our novel discoveries and technologies that are important to our business. Although we own issued patents, our pending and future patent applications, may not result in issued patents. Even if our owned or licensed patent applications result in issued patents, we cannot assure you that such issued patents will afford sufficient protection of our product candidates or their intended uses against competitors, nor can there be any assurance that the patents issued will not be infringed, designed around, or invalidated by third parties, or that they will effectively prevent others from commercializing competing technologies, products, or product candidates.

Obtaining and enforcing patents is expensive, complex, and time-consuming, and we may not be able to file, prosecute, maintain, enforce, or license all necessary or desirable patent applications or maintain and/or enforce patents that may issue based on our owned or licensed patent applications at a reasonable cost or in a timely manner. We may not be able to obtain or maintain patent applications and patents due to the subject matter claimed in such patent applications and patents being in disclosures in the public domain. It is also possible that we will fail to identify patentable aspects of our research and development results before it is too late to obtain patent protection. Although we may have the right to have some input in connection with such activities, we may not have the right to control the preparation, filing, and prosecution of patent applications that are licensed to us by third parties, or to control prosecution and maintenance of patents that we out-license to third parties. For example, we do not control the

prosecution or enforcement of certain intellectual property licensed from PARI. Therefore, patents and applications that are relevant to our product candidates may not be prosecuted and enforced in a manner consistent with the best interests of our business. Although we enter into non-disclosure and confidentiality agreements with parties who have access to confidential or patentable aspects of our research and development output, such as our employees, corporate collaborators, outside scientific collaborators, CROs, CMOs, consultants, advisors, and other third parties, any of these parties may breach these agreements and disclose such results before a patent application is filed, thereby jeopardizing our ability to seek patent protection. Consequently, we may not be able to prevent any third parties from using any of our technology that is in the public domain to compete with our technologies or product candidates.

Composition of matter patents for pharmaceutical product candidates often provide a strong form of intellectual property protection for those types of products, as such patents provide protection without regard to any method of use. Similarly, patents for pharmaceutical formulations containing pharmaceutical product candidates may provide an additional form of intellectual property protection, as such patents provide protection without regard to any method of use. However, we cannot be certain that the claims in our pending patent applications directed to the pharmaceutical formulations of our product candidates will be considered patentable by the USPTO or by patent offices in foreign countries, or that such claims in any of our issued patents will be considered valid and enforceable by courts in the United States or foreign countries. In addition, we cannot be certain that the claims of such patents, and applications if granted, will be sufficiently broad to effectively prevent competitors from working around our claimed inventions by developing an alternative formulation and thereby competing with us without infringing our patent rights. Method of use patents protect the use of a product for the specified method or indication. In the absence of separate composition of matter protection, this type of patent does not prevent a competitor from making and marketing a product that is identical to our product candidates for an indication that is outside methods of use included in our owned or licensed patents. Moreover, even if competitor products are not approved for use in our patented indications, and our competitors do not actively promote their product for indications that are covered by our owned or licensed patents, clinicians may prescribe these competitor products “off-label.” Although off-label prescriptions may infringe or contribute to the infringement of method of use patents, such infringement is difficult to prevent or prosecute.

The issued patents we own or license that cover our pharmaceutical product candidates may expire at such a date that such patents may not prevent competitors from developing, making and marketing a product that is identical to our product candidates after expiration of any applicable regulatory exclusivities.

The patent position of biopharmaceutical companies generally is highly uncertain, involves complex legal and factual questions, and has in recent years been the subject of much litigation, resulting in court decisions, including Supreme Court decisions, which have increased uncertainties as to the ability to enforce patent rights in the future. As a result, the issuance, scope, validity, enforceability, and commercial value of any patent rights are highly uncertain. Our pending and future owned and in-licensed patent applications may not result in patents being issued that protect our technologies or product candidates, effectively prevent others from commercializing our technologies or product candidates or otherwise provide any competitive advantage. In fact, patent applications may not issue as patents at all. The coverage claimed in a patent application can also be significantly reduced before the patent is issued, and its scope can be reinterpreted after issuance. In addition, the laws of foreign countries may not protect our rights to the same extent as the laws of the United States, or vice versa.

The patent application process is subject to numerous risks and uncertainties, and there can be no assurance that we will be successful in protecting our product candidates by obtaining and defending patents. For example, we may not be aware of all third-party intellectual property rights potentially relating to our product candidates or their intended uses, and as a result the impact of such third-party intellectual property rights upon the patentability of our own patents and patent applications, as well as the impact of such third-party intellectual property upon our freedom to operate, is highly uncertain. Publications of discoveries in the scientific literature often lag behind the actual discoveries, and patent applications in the United States and other jurisdictions are typically not published until 18 months after filing or, in some cases, not at all. Therefore, we cannot know with certainty whether we were the first to make the inventions claimed in our owned or licensed patents or pending patent applications, or that we were the first to file for patent protection of such inventions. If a third party can establish that we were not the first to make or the first to file for patent protection of such inventions, our owned patent applications may not issue as patents and

even if issued, may be challenged and invalidated or rendered unenforceable. As a result, the issuance, inventorship, scope, validity, enforceability, and commercial value of our patent rights are highly uncertain.

The issuance of a patent is not conclusive as to its inventorship, scope, validity, or enforceability, and our owned or licensed patents and pending patent applications may be challenged in patent offices in the United States and abroad. Even issued patents may later be found invalid or unenforceable or may be modified or revoked in proceedings instituted by third parties before various patent offices or in courts. For example, our owned or licensed pending patent applications may be subject to third-party pre-issuance submissions of prior art to the USPTO, and our issued patents may be subject to post-grant review proceedings, oppositions, derivations, reexaminations, interferences, inter partes review proceedings, or other similar proceedings, in the United States or elsewhere, challenging our patent rights or the patent rights of others. Such submissions may also be made prior to a patent’s issuance, precluding the granting of a patent based on one or more of our owned pending patent applications. An adverse determination in any such challenges may result in loss of exclusivity or in patent claims being narrowed, invalidated, or held unenforceable, in whole or in part, which could limit our ability to stop others from using or commercializing similar or identical technology and product candidates, or limit the duration of the patent protection of our technology and product candidates. Such challenges also may result in substantial cost and require significant time from our scientists and management, even if the eventual outcome is favorable to us. Any of the foregoing could adversely affect our business, financial condition, results of operations, and prospects.

A third party may also claim that our owned patent rights are invalid or unenforceable in a litigation. The outcome following legal assertions of invalidity and unenforceability is unpredictable. An adverse result in any legal proceeding could put one or more of our owned patents at risk of being invalidated or interpreted narrowly and could allow third parties to commercialize our products and compete directly with us, without payment to us, or result in our inability to manufacture or commercialize our technology, products, or product candidates without infringing third-party patent rights.

In addition, given the amount of time required for the development, testing, and regulatory review of new product candidates, patents protecting such candidates might expire before or shortly after such candidates are commercialized. Further, if we encounter delays in our clinical trials, the period of time during which we could market our product candidates under patent protection would be reduced. The degree of future protection for our proprietary rights is uncertain. Only limited protection may be available and may not adequately protect our rights or permit us to gain or keep any competitive advantage. Any failure to obtain or maintain patent protection with respect to our product candidates or their uses could adversely affect our business, financial condition, results of operations, and prospects.

If our efforts to protect the proprietary nature of the intellectual property related to our technologies are not adequate, we may not be able to compete effectively in our market.

We rely upon a combination of patents, confidentiality agreements, and trade secret protection to protect the intellectual property related to our technologies. Any disclosure to or misappropriation by third parties of our confidential proprietary information could enable competitors to quickly duplicate or surpass our technological achievements, thus eroding our competitive position in our market. We, or any future partners, collaborators, licensors or licensees, may fail to identify patentable aspects of inventions made in the course of development and commercialization activities before it is too late to obtain patent protection on them. Therefore, we may miss potential opportunities to strengthen our patent position.

It is possible that defects of form in the preparation or filing of our owned or licensed patents or patent applications may exist, or may arise in the future, for example with respect to proper priority claims, inventorship, claim scope, or requests for patent term adjustments. If we or our future partners, collaborators, licensees or licensors fail to establish, maintain or protect such patents and other intellectual property rights, such rights may be reduced or eliminated. If our future partners, collaborators, licensees or licensors are not fully cooperative or disagree with us as to the prosecution, maintenance or enforcement of any patent rights, such patent rights could be compromised. If there are material defects in the form, preparation, prosecution, or enforcement of our owned or licensed patents or patent applications, such patents may be invalid and/or unenforceable, and such applications may never result in valid,

enforceable patents. Any of these outcomes could impair our ability to prevent competition from third parties, which may have an adverse impact on our business.

We anticipate additional patent applications will be filed both in the United States and in other countries, as appropriate. However, we cannot predict:

Additionally, we cannot be certain that the claims in our pending and future patent applications covering our product candidates will be considered patentable by the USPTO, or by patent offices in foreign countries, or that the claims in any of our issued patents will be considered valid or patentable by courts in the United States or foreign countries.

We may not be able to protect our intellectual property rights throughout the world.

Patents are of national or regional effect. Filing, prosecuting, and defending patents on all of our research programs and product candidates in all countries throughout the world would be prohibitively expensive, and our intellectual property rights in some countries outside the United States can be less extensive than those in the United States. In addition, the laws of some foreign countries do not protect intellectual property rights to the same extent as federal and state laws in the United States, even in jurisdictions where we do pursue patent protection. Consequently, we may not be able to prevent third parties from practicing our inventions in all countries outside the United States, even in jurisdictions where we or our licensors do pursue patent protection, or from selling or importing products made using our inventions in and into the United States or other jurisdictions. In some cases, we or our licensors may not be able to obtain patent protection for certain technology outside the United States. Competitors may use our technologies in jurisdictions where we and our licensors have not obtained patent protection to develop their own products and, further, may export otherwise infringing products to territories where we have patent protection, but enforcement is not as strong as that in the United States. These competitor products may compete with our product candidates, and our owned or licensed patents or other intellectual property rights may not be effective or sufficient to prevent them from competing.

Various companies have encountered significant problems in protecting and defending intellectual property rights in foreign jurisdictions. The legal systems of many countries, particularly certain developing countries, do not favor the enforcement of patents and other intellectual property protection, particularly those relating to pharmaceuticals, which could make it difficult for us to stop the infringement of our owned or licensed patents or marketing of competing products in violation of our proprietary rights. Proceedings to enforce our or our licensors’ patent rights in foreign jurisdictions could result in substantial costs and divert our efforts and attention from other aspects of our business, could put our owned or licensed patents at risk of being invalidated or interpreted narrowly and our owned or licensed patent applications at risk of not issuing and could provoke third parties to assert claims against us. We or our licensors may not prevail in any lawsuits that we or our licensors initiate, and the damages or other remedies awarded, if any, may not be commercially meaningful.

Various countries outside the United States have compulsory licensing laws under which a patent owner may be compelled to grant licenses to third parties. In addition, many countries limit the enforceability of patents against government agencies or government contractors. As a result, a patent owner may have limited remedies in certain circumstances, which could materially diminish the value of such patent. If we or any of our licensors is forced to grant a license to third parties with respect to any patents relevant to our business, our competitive position may be impaired, and our business, financial condition, results of operations, and prospects may be adversely affected. Accordingly, our efforts to enforce our intellectual property rights around the world may be inadequate to obtain a significant commercial advantage from the intellectual property that we develop or license.

Further, the standards applied by the USPTO and foreign patent offices in granting patents are not always applied uniformly or predictably. As such, we do not know the degree of future protection that we will have on our technologies and product candidates. While we will endeavor to try to protect our technologies and product candidates with intellectual property rights such as patents, as appropriate, the process of obtaining patents is time consuming, expensive, and unpredictable.

In addition, geopolitical actions in the United States and in foreign countries could increase the uncertainties and costs surrounding the prosecution or maintenance of our owned or licensed patent applications or those of any future licensors and the maintenance, enforcement, or defense of our issued patents or those of any future licensors. As a result, our competitive position may be impaired, and our business, financial condition, results of operations, and prospects may be adversely affected.

Third-party claims of intellectual property infringement, misappropriation, or other violation may prevent or delay our product discovery and development efforts.

Our commercial success depends in part on our ability and the ability of our future collaborators to develop, manufacture, market, and sell our product candidates without infringing, misappropriating, or otherwise violating the intellectual property and proprietary rights of third parties. We may analyze patents or patent applications of our competitors that we believe are relevant to our activities, and consider that we are free to operate in relation to our product candidates, but our competitors may obtain issued claims, including in patents we consider to be unrelated to our products or activities, which block our efforts or may potentially result in our product candidates or our activities infringing such claims.

There is a substantial amount of litigation involving the infringement of patents and other intellectual property rights in the biotechnology and pharmaceutical industries. We may be exposed to, or threatened with, future litigation by third parties having patent or other intellectual property rights and who allege that our product candidates, uses and/or other proprietary technologies infringe, misappropriate, or otherwise violate their intellectual property rights. Numerous U.S. and foreign issued patents and pending patent applications, which are owned by third parties, exist in the fields in which we are developing our product candidates. As the biotechnology and pharmaceutical industries expand and more patents are issued, the risk that our product candidates may give rise to claims of infringement of the patent rights of others increases. Moreover, it is not always clear to industry participants, including us, which patents exist which may be found to cover various types of drugs, products or their methods of use or manufacture. Moreover, we may face patent infringement claims from nonpracticing entities that have no relevant product revenue and against whom our owned or licensed patent portfolio may therefore have no deterrent effect. Thus, because of the large number of patents issued and patent applications currently pending in our fields, there may be a risk that third parties may allege they have patent rights which are infringed by our product candidates, technologies or methods.

If a third party alleges that we infringe, misappropriate, or otherwise violate its intellectual property rights, we may face a number of issues, including, but not limited to:

Some of our competitors may be able to sustain the costs of complex patent litigation more effectively than we can because they have substantially greater resources. In addition, any uncertainties resulting from the initiation and continuation of any litigation could have a material adverse effect on our ability to raise the funds necessary to continue our operations or could otherwise have a material adverse effect on our business, results of operations, financial condition and prospects.

Third parties may assert that we are employing their proprietary technology without authorization. Generally, conducting preclinical and clinical trials and other development activities in the United States is not considered an act of infringement. If a product candidate is approved by the FDA, a third party may then seek to enforce its patent by filing a patent infringement lawsuit against us. There may be issued third-party patents of which we are currently unaware with claims to compositions, formulations, methods of manufacture or methods for treatment related to the use or manufacture of our product candidates. There may be currently pending patent applications which may later result in issued patents that may be infringed by our product candidates. Moreover, we may fail to identify relevant patents or incorrectly conclude that a patent is invalid, not enforceable, exhausted, or not infringed by our activities.

Patent and other types of intellectual property litigation can involve complex factual and legal questions, and their outcome is uncertain. Even if we believe such claims are without merit, a court of competent jurisdiction could hold that third-party patents are valid, enforceable, and infringed, which could adversely affect our ability to commercialize our product candidates. In order to successfully challenge the validity of any such U.S. patent in federal court, we would need to overcome a presumption of validity. As this burden is a high one requiring us to present clear and convincing evidence as to the invalidity of any such U.S. patent claim, there is no assurance that a court of competent jurisdiction would invalidate the claims of any such U.S. patent or find that our product candidates or technology did not infringe any such claims.

Parties making claims against us may seek and obtain injunctive or other equitable relief, which could effectively block our ability to further develop and commercialize our product candidates. Defense of these claims, regardless of their merit, could involve substantial litigation expense and would be a substantial diversion of employee resources from our business. There could also be public announcements of the results of hearings, motions, or other interim proceedings or developments. If securities analysts or investors perceive these results to be negative, it could adversely affect the price of shares of our common stock. In the event of a successful claim of infringement against us, we may have to pay substantial damages, including treble damages and attorneys’ fees for willful infringement, obtain one or more licenses from third parties, pay royalties or redesign our infringing products, which may be impossible or require substantial time and monetary expenditure. We cannot predict whether any such license would be available at all or whether it would be available on commercially reasonable terms. Furthermore, even in the absence of litigation, we may need or may choose to obtain licenses from third parties to advance our research or allow commercialization of our product candidates. Even if we were able to obtain a license, it could be nonexclusive, thereby giving our competitors and other third parties access to the same technologies licensed to us, and it could require us to make substantial licensing and royalty payments. We may fail to obtain any of these licenses at a reasonable cost or on reasonable terms, if at all. In that event, we would be unable to further develop and commercialize our product candidates, which could harm our business significantly.

We may be involved in lawsuits to protect or enforce our owned or licensed patents or other intellectual property, which could be expensive, time-consuming and unsuccessful.

Competitors or other third parties may infringe, misappropriate, or violate our owned or licensed patents, trademarks, or other intellectual property. To counter infringement, misappropriation, or unauthorized use, we may be required to file infringement claims, which can be expensive and time consuming and divert the time and attention of our management and scientific personnel. Our pending patent applications cannot be enforced against third parties practicing the technology claimed in such applications unless and until a patent issues from such applications. Any claims we assert against perceived infringers could provoke these parties to assert counterclaims against us alleging that we infringe their patents, in addition to counterclaims asserting that our owned or licensed patents are invalid or unenforceable, or both. In patent litigation in the United States, defendant counterclaims alleging invalidity and/or unenforceability are commonplace. Grounds for a validity challenge could be an alleged failure to meet any of several statutory requirements, including lack of novelty, obviousness, non-enablement, insufficient written description, or failure to claim patent-eligible subject matter. Grounds for an unenforceability assertion could be an allegation that someone connected with prosecution of the patent withheld relevant information from the USPTO or made a misleading statement during prosecution. The outcome following legal assertions of invalidity and unenforceability is unpredictable. In any patent infringement proceeding, there is a risk that a court will decide that a patent of ours is invalid or unenforceable, in whole or in part, and that we do not have the right to stop the other party from using the invention at issue. There is also a risk that, even if the validity of such patents is upheld, the court will construe the patent’s claims narrowly or decide that we do not have the right to stop the other party from using the invention at issue on the grounds that our patent claims do not cover the invention, or decide that the other party’s use of our patented technology falls under the safe harbor to patent infringement under 35 U.S.C. §271(e)(1). An adverse outcome in a litigation or proceeding involving our patents could limit our ability to assert our patents against those parties or other competitors and may curtail or preclude our ability to exclude third parties from making and selling similar or competing products. Any of these occurrences could adversely affect our competitive position, and our business, financial condition, results of operations, and prospects. Similarly, if we assert trademark infringement claims, a court may determine that the marks we have asserted are invalid or unenforceable, or that the party against whom we have asserted trademark infringement has superior rights to the marks in question. In this case, we could ultimately be forced to cease use of such trademarks.

Even if we establish infringement, misappropriation, or violation, the court may decide not to grant an injunction against further infringing activity and instead award only monetary damages, which may or may not be an adequate remedy. Furthermore, because of the substantial amount of discovery required in connection with intellectual property litigation, there is a risk that some of our confidential information could be compromised by disclosure during litigation. There could also be public announcements of the results of hearings, motions, or other interim proceedings or developments. If securities analysts or investors perceive these results to be negative, it could adversely affect the price of shares of our common stock. Moreover, we cannot assure you that we will have sufficient financial or other resources to file and pursue such infringement, misappropriation, or violation claims, which typically last for years before they are concluded. Even if we ultimately prevail in such claims, the monetary cost of such litigation and the diversion of the attention of our management and scientific personnel could outweigh any benefit we receive as a result of the proceedings.

Issued patents covering our product candidates could be found invalid or unenforceable if challenged in court or before administrative bodies in the United States or abroad.

If we or one of our current or future licensors initiates legal proceedings against a third party to enforce a patent covering our product candidates, or our other proprietary technologies, the defendant could counterclaim that such patent is invalid or unenforceable. In patent litigation in the United States, defendant counterclaims alleging invalidity or unenforceability are commonplace. Grounds for a validity challenge could be an alleged failure to meet any of several statutory requirements, including lack of novelty, obviousness, or non-enablement. Grounds for an unenforceability assertion could be an allegation that someone connected with prosecution of the patent withheld relevant information from the USPTO, or made a misleading statement, during prosecution.

In addition to such counterclaims, third parties may raise claims challenging the validity or enforceability of a patent before administrative bodies in the United States or abroad, even outside the context of litigation. Such mechanisms include re-examination, post-grant review, inter partes review, derivation proceedings, and equivalent proceedings in foreign jurisdictions (e.g., opposition proceedings). Such proceedings could result in the revocation of, cancellation of, or amendment to our patent rights in such a way that they no longer cover our product candidates, and any other proprietary or platform technologies we may develop. The outcome following legal assertions of invalidity and unenforceability is unpredictable. With respect to the validity question, for example, we cannot be certain that there is no invalidating prior art of which we or our licensors and the patent examiner were unaware during prosecution. If a third party were to prevail on a legal assertion of invalidity or unenforceability, we would lose at least part, and perhaps all, of the patent protection provided to our product candidates, or other components of our programs, as applicable. Such a loss of patent protection could have a material adverse impact on our business, financial condition, results of operations, and prospects.

Furthermore, for U.S. applications in which all claims are entitled to a priority date before March 16, 2013, an interference proceeding can be provoked by a third-party or instituted by the USPTO to determine who was the first to invent any of the subject matter covered by the patent claims. We cannot be certain that we are the first to invent the inventions covered by pending patent applications and, if we are not, we may be subject to priority disputes. We may be required to disclaim part or all of the term of certain patents or all of the term of certain patent applications.

No assurance can be given that, if challenged, our owned or licensed patents would be declared by a court or an administrative body to be valid or enforceable.

Changes in patent law in the United States and other jurisdictions could diminish the value of patents in general, thereby impairing our ability to protect our product candidates.

Our success is heavily dependent on intellectual property, particularly patents. Obtaining, defending, maintaining, and enforcing patents in the biopharmaceutical industry involves both technological and legal complexity and is therefore costly, time consuming and inherently uncertain. Changes in either the patent laws or interpretation of the patent laws in the United States could increase the uncertainties and costs surrounding the prosecution of patent applications and the enforcement or defense of issued patents, and may diminish our ability to protect our inventions, obtain, maintain, enforce and protect our intellectual property rights and, more generally, could affect the value of our intellectual property or narrow the scope of our future owned and licensed patents. Patent reform legislation in the United States and other countries, including the Leahy-Smith America Invents Act, or the Leahy-Smith Act, signed into law on September 16, 2011, could increase those uncertainties and costs surrounding the prosecution of our patent applications and the enforcement or defense of our patents and future issued patents. The Leahy-Smith Act includes a number of significant changes to United States patent law. These include provisions that affect the way patent applications are prosecuted, redefine prior art, and provide more efficient and cost-effective avenues for competitors to challenge the validity of patents. These include allowing third-party submission of prior art to the USPTO during patent prosecution and additional procedures to attack the validity of a patent by USPTO administered post-grant proceedings, including post-grant review, inter partes review, and derivation proceedings.

Further, because of a lower evidentiary standard in these USPTO post-grant proceedings compared to the evidentiary standard in United States federal courts necessary to invalidate a patent claim, a third party could potentially provide evidence in a USPTO proceeding sufficient for the USPTO to hold a claim invalid even though the same evidence would be insufficient to invalidate the claim if first presented in a district court action. Accordingly, a third party may attempt to use the USPTO procedures to invalidate our patent claims that would not have been invalidated if first challenged by the third party as a defendant in a district court action. Thus, the Leahy-Smith Act and its implementation could increase the uncertainties and costs surrounding the prosecution of our patent applications and the enforcement or defense of our patents and future issued patents, all of which could adversely affect our business, financial condition, results of operations, and prospects.

After March 2013, under the Leahy-Smith Act, the United States transitioned to a first inventor to file system in which, assuming that the other statutory requirements are met, the first inventor to file a patent application will be entitled to the patent on an invention regardless of whether a third-party was the first to invent the claimed invention.

Consequently, if a third party files a patent application in the USPTO before we file an application covering the same invention, the third party could be awarded a patent covering an invention of ours even if we had made the invention before it was made by such third party. This will require us to be cognizant going forward of the time from invention to filing of a patent application. Since patent applications in the United States and most other countries are confidential for a period of time after filing or until issuance, we cannot be certain that we were the first to either (i) file any patent application related to our product candidates and other proprietary technologies we may develop or (ii) invent any of the inventions claimed in our patents or patent applications. Even where we have a valid and enforceable patent, we may not be able to exclude others from practicing the claimed invention where the other party can show that they used the invention in commerce before our filing date or the other party benefits from a compulsory license. The Leahy-Smith Act and its implementation could increase the uncertainties and costs surrounding the prosecution of our patent applications and the enforcement or defense of our patents and future issued patents, all of which could adversely affect our business, financial condition, results of operations, and prospects.

In addition, the patent positions of companies in the development and commercialization of pharmaceuticals are particularly uncertain. The U.S. Supreme Court has ruled on several patent cases in recent years, either narrowing the scope of patent protection available in certain circumstances or weakening the rights of patent owners in certain situations. Depending on future actions by the United States Congress, the United States courts, the USPTO, and the relevant law-making bodies in other countries, the laws and regulations governing patents could change in unpredictable ways that would weaken our ability to enforce patents or obtain new patents. We cannot predict how future decisions by the courts, the United States Congress, or the USPTO may impact the value of our patents. Any similar adverse change in the patent laws of other jurisdictions could also adversely affect our business, financial condition, results of operations, and prospects.

Similarly, changes in patent law and regulations in other countries or jurisdictions or changes in governmental bodies that enforce them or changes in how the relevant governmental authority enforces patent laws or regulations may weaken our ability to obtain new patents or to enforce patents that we may obtain in the future. For example, the complexity and uncertainty of European patent laws have also increased in recent years. In Europe, a unitary patent system took effect on June 1, 2023. Under the unitary patent system, all European patents, including those issued prior to June 1, 2023, now by default automatically fall under the jurisdiction of a new European Unified Patent Court, or the UPC, for litigation involving such patents. As the UPC is a new court system, there is no precedent for the court, increasing the uncertainty of any litigation. Our European patent applications, if issued, could be challenged in the UPC. During the first seven years of the UPC’s existence, the UPC legislation allows a patent owner to opt its European patents out of the jurisdiction of the UPC. We may decide to opt out our future European patents from the UPC, but doing so may preclude us from realizing the benefits of the UPC. Moreover, if we do not meet all of the formalities and requirements for opt-out under the UPC, our European patents could remain under the jurisdiction of the UPC. The UPC will provide our competitors with a new forum to centrally revoke our European patents, and allow for the possibility of a competitor to obtain pan-European injunctions. It is uncertain how the UPC will impact granted European patents in the biotechnology and pharmaceutical industries.

We may become subject to claims challenging the inventorship or ownership of our patents and other intellectual property.

We may be subject to claims that former employees, collaborators, or other third parties have an interest in our patents or other intellectual property as an inventor or co-inventor. The failure to name the proper inventors on a patent application can result in the patents issuing thereon being unenforceable. Inventorship disputes may arise from conflicting views regarding the contributions of different individuals named as inventors, the effects of foreign laws where foreign nationals are involved in the development of the subject matter of the patent, conflicting obligations of third parties involved in developing our product candidates, or as a result of questions regarding co-ownership of potential joint inventions. Litigation may be necessary to resolve these and other claims challenging inventorship or ownership. Alternatively, or additionally, we may enter into agreements to clarify the scope of our rights in such intellectual property. If we fail in defending any such claims, in addition to paying monetary damages, we may lose valuable intellectual property rights, such as exclusive ownership of, or right to use, valuable intellectual property. Such an outcome could adversely affect our business. Even if we are successful in defending against such claims, litigation could result in substantial costs and be a distraction to management and other employees.

Our future licensors may have relied on third-party consultants or collaborators or on funds from third parties, such as the United States government, such that our future licensors are not the sole and exclusive owners of the patents we may in-licensed. If other third parties have ownership rights or other rights to our future in-licensed patents, they may be able to license such patents to our competitors, and our competitors could market competing products and technology. This could adversely affect our competitive position, business, financial condition, results of operations, and prospects.

In addition, while it is our policy to require our employees and contractors who may be involved in the conception or development of intellectual property to execute agreements assigning such intellectual property to us, we may be unsuccessful in executing such an agreement with each party who, in fact, conceives or develops intellectual property that we regard as our own. Individuals executing agreements with us may have preexisting or competing obligations to a third party and thus an agreement with us may be ineffective in perfecting ownership of inventions developed by that individual. The assignment of intellectual property rights may not be self-executing, or the assignment agreements may be breached, and we may be forced to bring claims against third parties, or defend claims that they may bring against us, to determine the ownership of what we regard as our intellectual property. Such claims could adversely affect our business, financial condition, results of operations, and prospects.

We may not identify relevant third-party patents or may incorrectly interpret the relevance, scope, or expiration of a third-party patent, which might adversely affect our ability to develop and market our product candidates.

As the biopharmaceutical industry expands and more patents are issued, the risk increases that our product candidates may be subject to claims of infringement of the patent rights of third parties. There can be no assurance that our operations do not, or will not in the future, infringe, misappropriate, or otherwise violate existing or future third-party patents or other intellectual property rights. Identification of third-party patent rights that may be relevant to our operations is difficult because patent searching is imperfect due to differences in terminology among patents, incomplete databases, and the difficulty in assessing the meaning of patent claims. We cannot guarantee that any of our patent searches or analyses, including the identification of relevant patents, the scope of patent claims, or the expiration of relevant patents, are complete or thorough, nor can we be certain that we have identified each and every third-party patent and pending application in the United States and abroad that is relevant to or necessary for the commercialization of our product candidates in any jurisdiction.

Numerous U.S. and foreign patents and pending patent applications exist in our market that are owned by third parties. Our competitors in both the United States and abroad, many of which have substantially greater resources and have made substantial investments in patent portfolios and competing technologies, may have applied for or obtained or may in the future apply for and obtain, patents that will prevent, limit or otherwise interfere with our ability to make, use, and sell our product candidates. We do not always conduct independent reviews of pending patent applications of and patents issued to third parties. Patent applications in the United States and elsewhere are typically published approximately 18 months after the earliest filing for which priority is claimed, with such earliest filing date being commonly referred to as the priority date. Certain United States applications that will not be filed outside the United States can remain confidential until patents issue. In addition, patent applications in the United States and elsewhere can be pending for many years before issuance, or unintentionally abandoned patents or applications can be revived. Furthermore, pending patent applications that have been published can, subject to certain limitations, be later amended in a manner that could cover our technologies, product candidates, or the use of our product candidates. As such, there may be applications of others now pending or recently revived patents of which we are unaware. These patent applications may later result in issued patents, or the revival of previously abandoned patents may result in revived patents, that may be infringed by the manufacture, use, or sale of our technologies or product candidates or will prevent, limit, or otherwise interfere with our ability to make, use, or sell our technologies and product candidates.

The scope of a patent claim is determined by an interpretation of the law, the written disclosure in a patent, and the patent’s prosecution history. Our interpretation of the relevance or the scope of a patent or a pending application may be incorrect. For example, we may incorrectly determine that our product candidates are not covered by a third-party patent or may incorrectly predict whether a third-party’s pending application will issue with claims of relevant scope. Our determination of the expiration date of any patent in the United States or abroad that we consider relevant may be incorrect. Our failure to identify and correctly interpret relevant patents may negatively impact our ability to develop and market our product candidates.

We cannot provide any assurances that third-party patents and other intellectual property rights do not exist which might be enforced against our product candidates, their respective methods of use, manufacture, and formulations thereof, and could result in either an injunction prohibiting our manufacture or future sales, or, with respect to our future sales, an obligation on our part to pay royalties and/or other forms of compensation to third parties, which could be significant.

Patent terms may be inadequate to protect our competitive position on products or product candidates for a sufficient amount of time.

Patents have a limited lifespan. In the United States, if all maintenance fees are timely paid, the natural expiration of a patent is generally 20 years from its earliest United States non-provisional or international patent application filing date. Various extensions may be available, but the life of a patent, and the protection it affords, is limited. Even if patents covering our products or product candidates are obtained, once the patent life has expired, we may be open to competition from competing products, including generics. Given the amount of time required for the development, testing, and regulatory review of products or new product candidates, patents protecting such products or candidates might expire before or shortly after such products or candidates are commercialized. As a result, our patent portfolio may not provide us with sufficient and continuing rights to exclude others from commercializing products similar or identical to ours.

Obtaining and maintaining patent protection depends on compliance with various procedural, document submission, fee payment, and other requirements imposed by government patent agencies, and our patent protection could be reduced or eliminated as a result of noncompliance with these requirements.

Periodic maintenance fees, renewal fees, annuity fees, and various other government fees on patents and/or applications will be due to be paid to the USPTO and various government patent agencies outside of the United States over the lifetime of our owned patents and patent applications. We rely on our outside counsel, or third party vendors, to pay these fees due to United States and non-United States patent agencies. The USPTO and various non-United States government patent agencies require compliance with several procedural, documentary, fee payment, and other similar provisions during the patent application process. We are also dependent on PARI to take the necessary action to comply with these requirements with respect to the intellectual property licensed under the PARI License Agreement and may be similarly dependent on licensors in the future. In many cases, an inadvertent lapse can be cured by payment of a late fee or by other means in accordance with the applicable rules. There are situations, however, in which noncompliance can result in abandonment or lapse of the patent or patent application, resulting in partial or complete loss of patent rights in the relevant jurisdiction. In such an event, potential competitors might be able to enter the market and this circumstance could adversely affect our business, financial condition, results of operations, and prospects.

If we are unable to protect the confidentiality of our trade secrets, our business and competitive position would be harmed.

In addition to the protection afforded by patents, we rely on trade secret protection and confidentiality agreements to protect proprietary know-how that is not patentable or that we elect not to patent, processes for which patents are difficult to enforce, and any other elements of our discovery and development processes that involve proprietary know-how, information, or technology that is not covered by patents. We may also rely on trade secret protection as temporary protection for concepts that may be included in a future patent filing. However, trade secret protection will not protect us from innovations that a competitor develops independently of our proprietary know-how. If a competitor independently develops a technology that we protect as a trade secret and files a patent application on that technology, then we may not be able to patent that technology in the future, may require a license from the competitor to use our own know-how, and if the license is not available on commercially-viable terms, then we may not be able to launch our product candidate. Additionally, trade secrets can be difficult to protect and some courts inside and outside the United States are less willing or unwilling to protect trade secrets. The laws of some foreign countries do not protect proprietary rights to the same extent or in the same manner as the laws within the United States. We may need to share our trade secrets and proprietary know-how with current or future partners, collaborators, contractors, and others located in countries at heightened risk of theft of trade secrets, including through direct

intrusion by private parties or foreign actors, and those affiliated with or controlled by state actors. As a result, we may encounter significant problems in protecting and defending our intellectual property both in the United States and abroad. Additionally, although we require all of our employees to assign their inventions to us, and require all of our employees, consultants, advisors, and any third parties who have access to our proprietary know-how, information or technology to enter into confidentiality agreements, we cannot be certain that our trade secrets and other confidential proprietary information will not be disclosed, whether inadvertently or through intentional acts of current or departing employees, or that competitors will not otherwise gain access to our trade secrets. If any of the employees, consultants or advisors who are parties to these agreements breach or violate the terms of any of these agreements, we may not have adequate remedies for any such breach or violation. We cannot guarantee that we have entered into such agreements with each party that may have or has had access to our trade secrets or proprietary technology and processes. We also seek to preserve the integrity and confidentiality of our data and trade secrets by maintaining physical security of our premises and physical and electronic security of our information technology systems; however, such systems and security measures may be breached, and we may not have adequate remedies for any breach. If our trade secrets are not adequately protected, our business, financial condition, results of operations, and prospects could be adversely affected.

If our trademarks and trade names are not adequately protected, then we may not be able to build name recognition in our markets of interest and our business may be adversely affected.

Our registered or unregistered trademarks or trade names may be challenged, infringed, circumvented, or declared generic or determined to be infringing on other marks. During trademark registration proceedings, we may receive rejections of our applications by the USPTO or in other foreign jurisdictions. Although we are given an opportunity to respond to such rejections, we may be unable to overcome them. In addition, in the USPTO and in comparable agencies in many foreign jurisdictions, third parties are given an opportunity to oppose pending trademark applications and to seek to cancel registered trademarks. Opposition or cancellation proceedings may be filed against our trademarks, which may not survive such proceedings. Moreover, any name we have proposed to use with our product candidate in the United States must be approved by the FDA, regardless of whether we have registered it, or applied to register it, as a trademark. Similar requirements exist in Europe. The FDA typically conducts a review of proposed product names, including an evaluation of potential for confusion with other product names. If the FDA or an equivalent administrative body in a foreign jurisdiction objects to any of our proposed proprietary product names, we may be required to expend significant additional resources in an effort to identify a suitable substitute name that would qualify under applicable trademark laws, not infringe the existing rights of third parties, and be acceptable to the FDA. Furthermore, in many countries, owning and maintaining a trademark registration may not provide an adequate defense against a subsequent infringement claim asserted by the owner of a senior trademark.

We may not be able to protect our rights to these trademarks and trade names, which we need to build name recognition among potential partners or customers in our markets of interest. At times, competitors or other third parties may adopt trade names or trademarks similar to ours, thereby impeding our ability to build brand identity and possibly leading to market confusion. In addition, there could be potential trade name or trademark infringement claims brought by owners of other registered trademarks or trademarks that incorporate variations of our registered or unregistered trademarks or trade names. Over the long term, if we are unable to establish name recognition based on our trademarks and trade names, then we may not be able to compete effectively and our business may be adversely affected. Our efforts to enforce or protect our proprietary rights related to trademarks, trade names, domain names, or other intellectual property may be ineffective and could result in substantial costs and diversion of resources and could adversely affect our business, financial condition, results of operations, and prospects.

We may be subject to claims asserting that our employees, consultants, or advisors have wrongfully used or disclosed alleged trade secrets of their current or former employers or claims asserting ownership of what we regard as our own intellectual property.

Certain of our employees, consultants, or advisors have in the past and may in the future be employed at universities or other biotechnology or pharmaceutical companies, including our competitors or potential competitors. Although we try to ensure that our employees, consultants, and advisors do not use the proprietary information or know-how of others in their work for us, we may be subject to claims that these individuals or we have used or

disclosed intellectual property, including trade secrets or other proprietary information, of any such individual’s current or former employer. Litigation may be necessary to defend against these claims. If we fail in defending any such claims, in addition to paying monetary damages, we may lose valuable intellectual property rights. An inability to incorporate such technologies or features would harm our business and may prevent us from successfully commercializing our technologies or product candidates. In addition, we may lose personnel as a result of such claims and any such litigation or the threat thereof may adversely affect our ability to hire employees or contract with independent contractors. A loss of key personnel or their work product could hamper or prevent our ability to commercialize our technologies or product candidates, which could adversely affect our business, financial condition, results of operations, and prospects. Even if we are successful in defending against such claims, litigation could result in substantial costs and be a distraction to management.

In addition, we or our licensors may in the future be subject to claims by former employees, consultants, or other third parties asserting an ownership right in our owned or licensed patents or patent applications. An adverse determination in any such submission or proceeding may result in loss of exclusivity or freedom to operate or in patent claims being narrowed, invalidated, or held unenforceable, in whole or in part, which could limit our ability to stop others from using or commercializing similar technology and therapeutics, without payment to us, or could limit the duration of the patent protection covering our technologies and product candidates. Such challenges may also result in our inability to develop, manufacture, or commercialize our technologies and product candidates without infringing third-party patent rights. In addition, if the breadth or strength of protection provided by our owned or licensed patents and patent applications is threatened, it could dissuade companies from collaborating with us to license, develop, or commercialize current or future technologies and product candidates. Any of the foregoing could adversely affect our business, financial condition, results of operations, and prospects.

Intellectual property rights do not necessarily address all potential threats.

The degree of future protection afforded by our intellectual property rights is uncertain because intellectual property rights have limitations, and may not adequately protect our business or permit us to maintain our competitive advantage. For example:

Any of the foregoing could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition, results of operations and prospects.

Risks Related to Legal and Regulatory Compliance Matters

Our business operations and our relationships with healthcare providers, third-party payors, patients and other parties in the healthcare industry are subject, directly or indirectly, to significant regulation under a broad range of healthcare laws, including fraud and abuse laws. Any action against us for violation of such laws could harm our reputation and require significant resources for defense. If we are unable to comply, or have not fully complied, with such laws, we could face substantial penalties.

Pharmaceutical manufacturers, and the parties with which such manufacturers interact, are subject to extensive and complex regulation under a broad range of healthcare laws. Such laws, some of which will apply only if and when we have a marketed product, constrain our business operations, including the research and development, manufacturing, distribution, sales and promotion of our product candidates and products, if any are approved in the future, as well as educational and charitable activities. Arrangements with healthcare provider, third-party payors, patients and other parties in the healthcare industry professionals, which may have a significant impact on our business, are regulated by fraud and abuse and other healthcare laws. For more information, see the section titled “Business—Government Regulation—Other U.S. Healthcare Laws and Compliance Requirements.”

Healthcare laws regulating our business activities are broad and any exceptions may be narrow. Requirements may differ across jurisdictions. There may be limited guidance on the interpretation of the laws and their application to our specific activities. Interpretations of these laws by government enforcement agencies and courts are evolving. Efforts to ensure that our business operations will comply with applicable healthcare laws and regulations will involve substantial costs. We will need to develop and implement robust compliance policies and processes to seek to prevent and detect non-compliance and update such policies and processes as our operations and government expectations evolve, which will involve substantial and ongoing costs, and even with such policies and processes we cannot be certain to prevent non-compliance.

Given the broad scope, limited guidance and evolving government interpretations, our business activities may nonetheless potentially be subject to challenge under these healthcare laws despite efforts to ensure compliance. Any action against us for violation of these laws, even if we successfully defend against it, could cause us to incur significant legal expenses and divert our management’s attention from the operation of our business. Such an action could also harm our reputation and adversely affect our business as a result. If our operations are found to be in violation of any of these laws or any other governmental regulations that may apply to us, we may be subject to significant penalties, including, without limitation, civil, criminal and administrative penalties, damages, fines, disgorgement, imprisonment, exclusion from participating in federal and state funded healthcare programs, such as Medicare and Medicaid, additional reporting requirements and oversight if we become subject to a corporate integrity agreement or similar agreement to resolve allegations of non-compliance with these laws, contractual damages, diminished profits and future earnings, reputational harm, and the curtailment or restructuring of our operations, any of which could harm our business.

Even if we obtain regulatory approvals for our product candidates or any future product candidates, they will remain subject to ongoing regulatory oversight.

Even if we obtain any regulatory approvals for our product candidates or any future product candidates, such product candidates, once approved, will be subject to ongoing regulatory requirements applicable to manufacturing, labeling, packaging, storage, advertising, promoting, sampling, record-keeping and post-marketing activities, among other things. These requirements include submissions of safety and other post-marketing information and reports, registration, as well as continued compliance with cGMP and GCP requirements for any clinical trials that we conduct post-approval. Manufacturers of approved products and their facilities are subject to continual review and periodic and unannounced inspections by the FDA, EMA and other regulatory authorities for compliance with cGMP regulations and standards. Any regulatory approvals that we receive for our product candidates or any future product candidates may also be subject to a REMS, limitations on the approved indicated uses for which the drug may be marketed or to the conditions of approval, or requirements that we conduct potentially costly post-marketing testing, including additional trials and heightened surveillance to monitor the quality, safety and efficacy of the drug. An unsuccessful post-marketing study or failure to complete such a study could result in the withdrawal of marketing approval. We will further be required to promptly report any serious and unexpected adverse drug experiences and certain quality or production problems with our products to regulatory authorities along with other periodic reports.

Any new legislation addressing drug safety issues could result in delays in product development or commercialization, or increased costs to ensure compliance. We will also have to comply with requirements concerning advertising and promotion for our products. Promotional communications with respect to prescription drug products are subject to a variety of legal and regulatory restrictions and must be consistent with the information in the product’s approved label. As such, we will not be allowed to promote our products for indications or uses for which they do not have approval, commonly known as off-label promotion. Physicians, on the other hand, may prescribe products for off-label uses. Although the FDA, EMA and other regulatory agencies do not regulate a physician’s choice of drug treatment made in the physician’s independent medical judgment, they do restrict promotional communications from companies, including their sales force, with respect to off-label uses of products for which marketing approval has not been issued. However, companies may share truthful and not misleading information that is otherwise consistent with a product’s FDA approved labeling. The holder of an approved NDA must submit new or supplemental applications and obtain prior approval for certain changes to the approved product, product labeling, or manufacturing process. A company that is found to have improperly promoted off-label uses of their products may be subject to significant civil, criminal and administrative penalties.

In addition, drug manufacturers are subject to payment of annual fees and continual review and periodic inspections by the FDA, EMA and other regulatory authorities for compliance with cGMP requirements and adherence to commitments made in the NDA or foreign marketing application. If we, or a regulatory authority, discover previously unknown problems with any product, if approved, such as adverse experiences of unanticipated severity or frequency, or problems with the facility where the product is manufactured or if a regulatory authority disagrees with the promotion, marketing or labeling of that product, a regulatory authority may impose restrictions relative to that product, the manufacturing facility or us, including requesting revisions to the approved labeling to add new safety information, imposing of post-market studies or clinical trials to assess new safety risks or imposing distribution restrictions or other restrictions under a REMS program, requesting a recall or requiring withdrawal of the product from the market or suspension of manufacturing. If we fail to comply with applicable regulatory requirements following approval of any of our product candidates, a regulatory authority may:

Any government investigation of alleged violations of law could require us to expend significant time and resources in response and could generate negative publicity. The occurrence of any event or penalty described above may inhibit our ability to commercialize our product candidates and harm our business, financial condition, results of operations and prospects.

Healthcare and other reform initiatives may have an adverse impact on our business and results of operations.

In the U.S. and some foreign jurisdictions, there have been and continue to be ongoing efforts to implement legislative and regulatory changes regarding the healthcare system. Such changes could prevent or delay marketing approval of any product candidates that we may develop; restrict or regulate post-approval activities; and affect our ability to profitably sell any product candidates for which we obtain marketing approval. These reform efforts may result in more rigorous coverage criteria, additional downward pressure on the price that we, or our future collaborators, may receive for any approved products, or in other consequences that may adversely affect our ability to achieve or maintain profitability. For more information, see the section titled “Business—Government Regulation—Healthcare Reform.”

There is no assurance that federal or state healthcare reform will not adversely affect our future business and financial results. The implementation of healthcare reform measures, including drug price negotiation programs, pricing transparency requirements, and state-level pricing controls, could significantly reduce the prices we are able to charge for any approved products, limit our commercial opportunities, or impose substantial compliance costs. We may be required to provide significant discounts or rebates, participate in government price negotiation programs on unfavorable terms, or face restrictions on product access that limit our ability to commercialize our products successfully. Additionally, implementation by third party payors of policies and practices to limit coverage, manage utilization, reduce payment of drug products could adversely affect our ability to sell our products profitably. The effect of these pricing pressures and access restrictions may prevent us from being able to generate revenue, attain profitability or commercialize our drugs.

Further, we cannot predict the likelihood, nature, or extent of healthcare reform initiatives that may arise from future legislation or administrative action, which could impose additional restrictions or costs on our business that we have not anticipated.

General legislative cost control measures may also affect reimbursement for our product candidates. The Budget Control Act, for example, resulted in the imposition of reductions in Medicare (but not Medicaid) payments to providers in 2013 and will remain in effect into 2032 unless additional Congressional action is taken. Any significant spending reductions affecting Medicare, Medicaid or other publicly funded or subsidized health programs that may be implemented and/or any significant taxes or fees that may be imposed on us could have an adverse impact on our ability to obtain adequate reimbursement for any approved products and on our results of operations.

Risks Related to the Commercialization of Our Product Candidates

We face substantial competition and we may not be able to compete successfully in this environment.

We face significant competition in an environment of rapid change, and there is a possibility that our competitors may achieve regulatory approval before us or develop therapies that are safer or more advanced or effective than ours, or that we are unable to compete with existing entities that have made substantial investment into novel treatments for disease, which may harm our financial condition and our ability to successfully market or commercialize any product candidates we may develop. The development and commercialization of new drug products is highly competitive. We will face competition with respect to our product candidates and any product candidates that we may seek to develop or commercialize in the future from major pharmaceutical companies, specialty pharmaceutical companies and biotechnology companies worldwide. Potential competitors also include academic institutions, government agencies and other public and private research organizations that conduct research, seek patent or other intellectual property protection and establish collaborative arrangements for research, development, manufacturing and commercialization. There are larger pharmaceuticals that currently market and sell products or are pursuing the development of products for the treatment of the disease indications for which we have research programs. Some of these competitive products and therapies are based on scientific approaches that are the same as or similar to our approach, while others are based on entirely different approaches. For more information, see “Business–Competition.” Any product candidates that we successfully develop and commercialize will compete with existing therapies and new therapies that may become available in the future that are approved to treat the same diseases for which we may obtain approval for any product candidates we may develop.

Many of our current or potential competitors, either alone or with their collaboration partners, may have significantly greater financial resources and expertise in research and development, manufacturing, conducting preclinical studies and clinical trials, obtaining regulatory approvals and marketing approved products than we do. Mergers and acquisitions in the pharmaceutical and biotechnology industries may result in even more resources being concentrated among a smaller number of our competitors. Smaller or early-stage companies may also prove to be significant competitors, particularly through collaborative arrangements with large and established companies. These competitors also compete with us in recruiting and retaining qualified scientific and management personnel and establishing clinical trial sites and patient registration for clinical trials, as well as in acquiring technologies complementary to, or necessary for, our programs. Our commercial opportunity could be reduced or eliminated if our competitors develop and commercialize product candidates that are safer, more effective, have fewer or less severe side effects, are more convenient, or are less expensive than any product candidates that we may develop or that would render any product candidates that we may develop obsolete or non-competitive. Our competitors also may obtain FDA or other regulatory approval for their product candidates more rapidly than we may obtain approval for ours, which could result in our competitors establishing a strong market position before we are able to enter the market. Additionally, technologies developed by our competitors may render our product candidates uneconomical or obsolete, and we may not be successful in marketing any product candidates we may develop against competitors.

In addition, as a result of the expiration or successful challenge of our patent or other intellectual property rights, we could face risks relating to our ability to successfully prevent or delay launch of competitors’ products. The availability of our competitors’ products could limit the demand and the price we are able to charge for any product candidates that we may develop and commercialize. The biotechnology and pharmaceutical industries are characterized by rapid advances, intense competition and a strong emphasis on proprietary and novel products and product candidates. We face competition with respect to our current product candidates and will face competition with respect to any product candidates that we may seek to develop or commercialize in the future, from many different sources, including major pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies, academic institutions, governmental agencies, consortiums and public and private research institutions.

Even if any of our product candidates receive marketing approval, it may fail to achieve the degree of market acceptance by physicians, patients, third-party payors and others in the medical community necessary for commercial success.

If any of our product candidates receive marketing approval, they may nonetheless fail to gain sufficient market acceptance by physicians, patients, third-party payors and others in the medical community. There is currently a well-established oral standard of care for PF: pirfenidone (ESBRIET®, marketed by Legacy Pharma Inc. in the U.S. and Genentech/Roche globally), nintedanib (OFEV®, marketed by Boehringer Ingelheim), and nerandomilast (JASCAYD®, initially marketed by Boehringer Ingelheim) with which physicians, PF patients and payors are very familiar and for which an established benefit-risk profile exists. Even if our product candidates are successful in registrational clinical trials, they may not be successful in displacing the current standard of care if we are unable to demonstrate competitive efficacy, safety, ease of administration and/or cost-effectiveness. For example, physicians may be reluctant or unwilling to take their patients off their current medication, and switch their treatment regimen to our product candidates or add-on our product to their treatment regimen, if approved, if the current medication is effective. Further, patients often acclimate to the treatment regimen that they are currently taking and may not want to switch or add-on unless recommended to do so by their physician for clinical reasons or required to do so due to lack of coverage and adequate reimbursement. Even if we are able to demonstrate our product candidates’ safety and efficacy to the FDA, EMA and other regulators and receive approval, concerns in the medical community related to the comparative efficacy or side effect profile of our products may hinder market acceptance and uptake.

Efforts to educate the medical community and third-party payors regarding the benefits of our product candidates, if approved, may require significant resources, including management time and financial resources, and may not be successful. If our product candidates do not achieve an adequate level of market acceptance, we may not generate significant revenue and we may not become profitable. The degree of market acceptance of our product candidates, if approved for commercial sale, will depend on a number of factors, including:

Any failure by one or more of our product candidates that obtains regulatory approvals to achieve market acceptance or commercial success would adversely affect our business prospects.

Due to the significant resources required for the development of our pipeline, and depending on our ability to access capital, we must prioritize the development of certain product candidates over others. Moreover, we may fail to expend our limited resources on product candidates or indications that may have been more profitable or for which there is a greater likelihood of success.

Due to the significant resources required for the development of our product candidates, we must decide which product candidates and indications to pursue and advance and the amount of resources to allocate to each. Our decisions concerning the allocation of research, development, collaboration, management and financial resources toward particular product candidates, therapeutic areas or indications may not lead to the development of viable commercial products and may divert resources away from better opportunities. If we make incorrect determinations regarding the viability or market potential of either lead product candidate, or any of our other current or future product candidates, or misread trends in the pharmaceutical industry, our business, financial condition and results of operations could be materially and adversely affected. As a result, we may fail to capitalize on viable commercial products or profitable market opportunities, be required to forego or delay pursuit of opportunities with other product candidates or other diseases and disease pathways that may later prove to have greater commercial potential than those we choose to pursue, or relinquish valuable rights to such product candidates through collaboration, licensing or royalty arrangements in cases in which it would have been advantageous for us to invest additional resources to retain sole development and commercialization rights.

We owe royalty payments to a third party pursuant to the terms of a confidential settlement agreement.

Pursuant to the terms of a confidential settlement agreement, for a period beginning upon first commercial sale and ending on the later of the expiration of the last to expire patent right or twenty years after such first commercial sale, we are obligated to pay a third party royalties in the amount of 0.25% of net sales on any pirfenidone product, including AP01, and 0.5% of net sales of any nintedanib product, including AP02, although the agreement specifically excludes any percentage of net sales on AP03 as a combination product. The payment of the royalties will impact our future revenue and may make it more difficult to engage in collaborations, licenses or the acquisition of certain product candidates, and may result in us ceasing to develop certain product candidates or all of our product candidates if we determine that it will not be financially profitable to do so.

We currently have no commercial marketing and sales organization and have no experience as a company in commercializing products, and we may have to invest significant resources to develop these capabilities. If we are unable to establish marketing and sales capabilities or enter into agreements with third parties to market and sell our products, we may not be able to generate product revenue.

We have no internal sales, marketing or distribution capabilities, nor have we commercialized a product. If any of our product candidates ultimately receives regulatory approval, we expect to establish a marketing and sales organization with technical expertise and supporting distribution capabilities to commercialize each such product in major markets, which will be expensive and time consuming. We have no prior experience as a company in the marketing, sale and distribution of pharmaceutical products and there are significant risks involved in building and managing a sales organization, including our ability to hire, retain and incentivize qualified individuals, generate sufficient sales leads, provide adequate training to sales and marketing personnel and effectively manage a geographically dispersed sales and marketing team. Any failure or delay in the development of our internal sales, marketing and distribution capabilities would adversely impact the commercialization of these products. We may also choose to collaborate with third parties that have direct sales forces and established distribution systems, either to augment our own sales force and distribution systems or in lieu of our own sales force and distribution systems. We may not be able to enter into collaborations or hire consultants or external service providers to assist us in sales, marketing and distribution functions on acceptable financial terms, or at all. In addition, our product revenues and our profitability, if any, may be lower if we rely on third parties for these functions than if we were to market, sell and distribute any products that we develop ourselves. We likely will have little control over such third parties, and any of them may fail to devote the necessary resources and attention to sell and market our products effectively. If we are not successful in commercializing our products, either on our own or through arrangements with one or more third parties, we may not be able to generate any future product revenue and we would incur significant additional losses.

The success of our product candidates or any future product candidate will depend significantly on coverage and adequate reimbursement by third party payors or the willingness of patients to pay for these products if not covered.

We believe that for any product candidates which may be approved, our success depends on obtaining and maintaining coverage and adequate reimbursement for such products for their respective approved indications, and the extent to which patients will be willing to pay out-of-pocket for such products in the absence of reimbursement for all or part of the cost. Accordingly, we will need to establish a coverage and reimbursement strategy for any approved product candidate. In the U.S. and markets in other countries, patients generally rely on third-party payors to reimburse all or part of the costs associated with their treatment. Adequate coverage and reimbursement from governmental healthcare programs, such as Medicare and Medicaid, and commercial payors is critical to new product acceptance. Government and private third-party payors decide which products they will cover and establish reimbursement levels. Coverage and reimbursement varies among third party payors and new products face significant challenges in obtaining and maintaining coverage and adequate reimbursement, particularly if approved for indications with established treatments already on the market. For more information, see the section titled “Business—Government Regulation—Coverage and Reimbursement.”

A primary trend in the U.S. healthcare industry and elsewhere is cost containment. Government authorities and third-party payors have attempted to control costs by limiting coverage for certain products, managing utilization of covered products and restricting the amount of reimbursement for covered products. Within the U.S., net prices for drugs may be reduced by mandatory discounts or rebates required by government healthcare programs or requested by private payors in exchange for favorable coverage. The process of obtaining coverage and reimbursement determinations from third-party payors can be lengthy, unpredictable, and costly, with no guarantee of success. Even if we obtain favorable coverage decisions, payors may subsequently revise their policies in ways that adversely affect our products. Our inability to promptly obtain coverage and adequate reimbursement rates from both government-funded and private payors for any approved products that we develop could have a material adverse effect on our operating results, our ability to raise capital needed to commercialize products and our overall financial condition. For more information, see the section titled “Business—Government Regulation—Healthcare Reform.”

There can be no assurance that our product candidates, even if they are approved for sale in the U.S. or in other countries, will be considered medically reasonable and necessary for a specific indication or cost-effective by third-party payors, or that coverage and an adequate level of reimbursement will be available or that third-party payors’ reimbursement policies will not adversely affect our ability to sell our product candidates profitably.

The market for our product candidates may be smaller than we estimate.

Our estimates of the potential market opportunity for our product candidates include several key assumptions, based on our industry knowledge, industry publications and third-party research reports. These assumptions include the number of patients who have PF, as well as the estimated reimbursement levels for each product candidate, if approved. While we believe our assumptions and the data underlying our estimates are reasonable, and believe that the assumptions and data underlying the estimates of third-party led market research are similarly reasonable and accurate, we have not independently verified the accuracy of the third-party data on which we have based our assumptions and estimates, and these assumptions and estimates may not be correct and the conditions supporting our assumptions or estimates may change at any time, including as a result of factors outside our control, thereby reducing the predictive accuracy of these underlying factors. Further, new studies may change the estimated incidence or prevalence of these diseases, and the potentially addressable patient population for our product candidates may not ultimately be amenable to treatment with our product candidates. If the actual market for any product candidates we may develop is smaller than we estimate, our revenues, if any, may be limited and it may be more difficult for us to achieve or maintain profitability.

Clinical trial and product liability lawsuits against us could divert our resources, cause us to incur substantial liabilities and limit commercialization of any products that we may develop.

We face an inherent risk of clinical trial and product liability exposure related to the testing of our product candidates in human clinical trials and will face an even greater risk if we commercially sell any products that we may develop, especially if our products are prescribed for off-label uses (even if we do not promote such uses). For example, we may be sued if our product candidates allegedly cause injury or are found to be otherwise unsuitable during product testing, manufacturing, marketing or sale.

Any such product liability claims may include allegations of defects in manufacturing, defects in design, a failure to warn of dangers inherent in the product candidate, negligence, strict liability and a breach of warranties. Claims may be brought against us by clinical trial participants, patients or others using, administering or selling products that may be approved in the future. Claims could also be asserted under state consumer protection acts. If we cannot successfully defend ourselves against claims that our product candidates caused injuries, we will incur substantial liabilities. Regardless of merit or eventual outcome, liability claims may result in:

Although we maintain clinical trial liability insurance coverage, such insurance may not be adequate to cover all liabilities that we may incur. We may need to increase our insurance coverage as we expand our clinical trials. We intend to expand our insurance coverage for products to include the sale of commercial products if we obtain marketing approval on any current or potential product candidates, but we may be unable to obtain commercially reasonable product liability insurance for any products approved for marketing. Insurance coverage is increasingly expensive. We may not be able to maintain insurance coverage at a reasonable cost or in an amount adequate to satisfy any liability that may arise.

Risks Related to Our Business Operations, Employee Matters and Managing Our Growth

Our future success depends on our ability to retain key executives and to attract, retain and motivate qualified personnel.

Our success depends in part on our continued ability to attract, retain and motivate highly qualified management, clinical and scientific personnel. Each of our executive officers may currently terminate their employment with us at any time. We do not maintain “key person” insurance for any of our executives or employees. This lack of insurance means that we may not have adequate compensation for the loss of the services of these individuals.

The loss of the services of our executive officers or other key employees could impede the achievement of our development and commercialization objectives and seriously harm our ability to successfully implement our business strategy. Furthermore, replacing executive officers and key employees may be difficult and may take an extended period of time because of the limited number of individuals in our industry with the breadth of skills and experience

required to successfully develop, gain regulatory approvals of and commercialize products. Competition to hire from this limited pool is intense, and we may be unable to hire, train, retain or motivate these key personnel on acceptable terms given the competition among numerous pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies for similar personnel. We also experience competition for the hiring of scientific and clinical personnel from universities and research institutions. In addition, we rely on consultants and advisors, including scientific and clinical advisors, to assist us in formulating our development and commercialization strategy. Our consultants and advisors may be employed by employers other than us and may have commitments under consulting or advisory contracts with other entities that may limit their availability to us. If we are unable to continue to attract and retain high quality personnel, our ability to pursue our growth strategy will be limited.

Further, job candidates and existing employees often consider the value of the stock awards they receive in connection with their employment. If the perceived benefits of our stock awards decline, either because we are a public company or for other reasons, it may harm our ability to recruit and retain highly skilled employees. Our employees may be more likely to leave us if the shares they own have significantly appreciated in value relative to the original purchase prices of the shares, or if the exercise prices of the options that they hold are significantly below the market price of our common stock, particularly after the expiration of the lock-up agreements described herein.

We may encounter difficulties in managing our growth, which could disrupt our operations.

As of December 31, 2025, we had 50 full-time employees, including 31 who were engaged in research and development activities. As we continue to build our organization and execute on our strategy, we expect to experience significant growth in the number of our employees and the scope of our operations, particularly in the areas of clinical development, regulatory affairs and, if any of our product candidates receives marketing approval, sales, marketing and distribution. To manage our anticipated future growth, we must continue to implement and improve our managerial, operational and financial systems, expand our facilities and continue to recruit and train additional qualified personnel. Due to our limited financial resources and the limited experience of our management team in managing a company with such anticipated growth, we may not be able to effectively manage the expansion of our operations or recruit and train additional qualified personnel. The expansion of our operations may lead to significant costs and may divert our management, business, and development resources. Any inability to manage growth could delay the execution of our business plans or disrupt our operations. Our future financial performance and our ability to compete effectively will depend, in part, on our ability to manage our growth effectively.

Our business could be affected by litigation, government investigations and enforcement actions.

We currently operate and plan to operate in a highly regulated industry and we could now or in the future be subject to litigation, government investigation and enforcement actions on a variety of matters in the U.S. or foreign jurisdictions, including, without limitation, intellectual property, regulatory, product liability, environmental, whistleblower, false claims, privacy, anti-kickback, anti-bribery, securities, commercial, employment and other claims and legal proceedings which may arise from conducting our business. Any determination that our operations or activities are not in compliance with existing laws or regulations could result in the imposition of fines, civil and criminal penalties, equitable remedies, including disgorgement, injunctive relief and/or other sanctions against us, and remediation of any such findings could have an adverse effect on our business operations.

Legal proceedings, government investigations and enforcement actions can be expensive and time-consuming. An adverse outcome resulting from any such proceedings, investigations or enforcement actions could result in significant damages awards, fines, penalties, exclusion from the federal healthcare programs, healthcare debarment, injunctive relief, product recalls, reputational damage and modifications of our business practices, which could have a material adverse effect on our business and results of operations. Even if such a proceeding, investigation or enforcement action is ultimately decided in our favor, the investigation and defense thereof could require substantial financial and management resources and cause reputational harm.

Inadequate funding for the FDA, the Securities and Exchange Commission and other government agencies, including from government shut downs, or other disruptions to these agencies’ operations, could hinder their ability to hire and retain key leadership and other personnel, prevent new products and services from being developed or commercialized in a timely manner or otherwise prevent those agencies from performing normal business functions on which the operation of our business may rely, which could negatively impact our business.

The ability of the FDA to review and approve new products can be affected by a variety of factors, including government budget and funding levels, ability to hire and retain key personnel and accept the payment of user fees, and statutory, regulatory, and policy changes. In addition, government funding of the Securities and Exchange Commission, or the SEC, and other government agencies on which our operations may rely, including those that fund research and development activities, is subject to the political process, which is inherently fluid and unpredictable.

Disruptions at the FDA and other agencies may also slow the time necessary for new product candidates to be reviewed and/or approved by necessary government agencies, which would adversely affect our business. For example, over the last several years the U.S. government has shut down several times and certain regulatory agencies, such as the FDA and the SEC, have had to furlough critical employees and stop critical activities. If another prolonged government shutdown occurs, it could significantly impact the ability of the FDA to timely review and process our regulatory submissions, which could have a material adverse effect on our business. Further, future government shutdowns could impact our ability to access the public markets and obtain necessary capital in order to properly capitalize and continue our operations.

Our employees, independent contractors, consultants, commercial collaborators, principal investigators, CROs, suppliers and vendors may engage in misconduct or other improper activities, including non-compliance with regulatory standards and requirements.

Our employees, independent contractors, consultants, commercial collaborators, principal investigators, CROs, suppliers and vendors may engage in fraudulent conduct or other illegal activity. Misconduct by these parties could include intentional, reckless and/or negligent conduct or disclosure of unauthorized activities to us that violates FDA or other comparable regulatory authority regulations, including those laws requiring the reporting of true, complete and accurate information to the FDA or other comparable regulatory authority, manufacturing standards, foreign, federal and state healthcare laws and regulations, and laws that require the true, complete and accurate reporting of financial information or data.

In particular, sales, marketing and business arrangements in the healthcare industry are subject to extensive laws and regulations intended to prevent fraud and abuse, such as the payment of kickbacks in return for business. These laws and regulations may restrict or prohibit a wide range of pricing, discounting, marketing and promotion, sales commission, customer incentive programs and other business arrangements. Misconduct by these parties could also involve the improper use or misrepresentation of individually identifiable information, including, without limitation, information obtained in the course of clinical trials, which could result in regulatory sanctions and serious harm to our reputation. We have adopted a code of business conduct and ethics, but it is not always possible to identify and deter misconduct, and the precautions we take to detect and prevent this activity may not be effective in controlling unknown or unmanaged risks or losses or in protecting us from governmental investigations or other actions or lawsuits stemming from a failure to be in compliance with such laws or regulations. In addition, we are subject to the risk that a person or government could allege such fraud or other misconduct, even if none occurred. If any such actions are instituted against us, and we are not successful in defending ourselves or asserting our rights, those actions could have a significant impact on our business, including the imposition of significant civil, criminal and administrative penalties, including, without limitation, damages, fines, disgorgement, imprisonment, exclusion from participation in government healthcare programs, such as Medicare and Medicaid, imprisonment, contractual damages, reputational harm, diminished profits and future earnings, additional reporting requirements and oversight if we become subject to a corporate integrity agreement or similar agreement to resolve allegations of non-compliance with these laws, and the curtailment or restructuring of our operations. Any of these could adversely affect our ability to operate our business and our results of operations.

If our third-party manufacturers or suppliers do not comply with laws regulating the protection of the environment and health and human safety, our business could be affected adversely.

We and any CDMOs and suppliers we engage are subject to numerous federal, state and local environmental, health, and safety laws, regulations and permitting requirements, including those governing laboratory procedures; the generation, handling, use, storage, treatment and disposal of hazardous and regulated materials and wastes; the emission and discharge of hazardous materials into the ground, air and water; and employee health and safety. Manufacturing operations for our product candidates involve the use of hazardous and flammable materials, including chemicals and biological materials. These operations also produce hazardous waste products. We or the manufacturers we contract with generally contract with third parties for the disposal of these materials and wastes. We cannot eliminate the risk of contamination or injury from these materials. In the event of contamination or injury resulting from the use of hazardous materials by us or by one of our third party-manufacturers, we could be held liable for any resulting damages or be penalized with fines in an amount exceeding our resources, and our clinical trials or regulatory approvals could be suspended. We and our third-party manufacturers and suppliers cannot eliminate the risk of accidental injury or contamination from these materials or wastes. Although we maintain general liability insurance as well as workers’ compensation insurance to cover us for costs and expenses we may incur due to injuries to our employees resulting from the use of hazardous materials, this insurance may not provide adequate coverage against potential liabilities.

In addition, we and our third-party manufacturers and suppliers may incur substantial costs in order to comply with current or future environmental, health and safety laws and regulations, which may increase the cost of their services to us. These current or future laws and regulations may impair our research, development or production efforts. Failure to comply with these laws and regulations also may result in substantial fines, penalties or other sanctions or liabilities for us or our third-party manufacturers and suppliers, or adversely impact our supply chain or reputation, which could in turn materially adversely affect our business, financial condition, results of operations and prospects.

Our insurance policies are expensive and only protect us from some business risks, which will leave us exposed to significant uninsured liabilities.

We do not carry insurance for all categories of risk that our business may encounter. Some of the policies we currently maintain include property, general liability, employment directors’ and officers’ and employment practices insurance, however, we may not be able to maintain adequate levels of insurance coverage in the future. Further, an insurance carrier may seek to cancel or deny coverage after a claim has occurred.

We may engage in strategic transactions that could increase our capital requirements, dilute our stockholders, cause us to incur debt or assume contingent liabilities, subject us to other risks, adversely affect our liquidity, increase our expenses, present significant distractions to our management and harm our financial condition and results of operations.

From time to time, we may consider strategic transactions, such as acquisitions of companies, asset purchases and strategic partnerships or out-licensing or in-licensing of intellectual property, product candidates or products. Additional potential transactions that we may consider in the future include a variety of business arrangements, including spin-offs, strategic partnerships, joint ventures, restructurings, divestitures, business combinations and investments. We may not be able to find suitable partners or acquisition candidates, and we may not be able to complete such transactions on favorable terms, if at all. Any future transactions could increase our near and long-term expenditures, result in potentially dilutive issuances of our equity securities, including our common stock, or the incurrence of debt, contingent liabilities, amortization expenses or acquired in-process research and development expenses, any of which could affect our financial condition, liquidity and results of operations. Future acquisitions may also require us to obtain additional financing, which may not be available on favorable terms or at all. These transactions may never be successful and may require significant time and attention of our management. In addition, the integration of any licensed assets that we may acquire rights to in the future may disrupt our existing business, may cause delays related to the integration of any licensed or acquired assets, and may be a complex, risky and costly endeavor for which we may never realize the full benefits. Furthermore, we may experience losses related to our entry

into any licensing or partnerships, including as a result of failure to realize expected benefits or the materialization of unexpected liabilities or risks, which could have a material negative effect on our results of operations and financial condition. Accordingly, although there can be no assurance that we will undertake or successfully complete any additional transactions of the nature described above, any additional transactions that we do complete could have a material adverse effect on our business, results of operations, financial condition and prospects.

Business disruptions could seriously harm our future revenue and financial condition and increase our costs and expenses.

Our operations and the operations of our suppliers, CROs, CDMOs and clinical sites could be subject to earthquakes, power shortages, telecommunications or infrastructure failures, cybersecurity incidents, physical security breaches, water shortages, floods, hurricanes, typhoons, blizzards, and other extreme weather conditions, fires, public health pandemics or epidemics and other natural or manmade disasters or business interruptions, for which we are predominantly self-insured. We rely or expect to rely on third-party manufacturers or suppliers to produce our product candidates and their components and on CROs and clinical sites to conduct our clinical trials, and do not currently have a redundant source of supply for all components of our product candidates. Our ability to obtain clinical or, if approved, commercial, supplies of our product candidates or any future product candidates could be disrupted if the operations of these suppliers were affected by a man-made or natural disaster or other business interruption, and our ability to commence, conduct or complete our clinical trials in a timely manner could be similarly adversely affected by any of the foregoing. The occurrence of any of these business disruptions could seriously harm our operations and financial condition and increase our costs and expenses.

Risks Related to This Offering, Ownership of Our Common Stock and Our Status as a Public Company

There has been no prior public market for our common stock. An active trading market for our common stock may not develop or be sustained.

Prior to this offering, there has been no public market for our common stock. The initial public offering price for our common stock was determined through negotiations with the underwriters and may vary from the price of our common stock after the closing of this offering. An active trading market for our shares may never develop or, if it does develop, be sustained following this offering. If an active market for our common stock does not develop or is not sustained, the value of your shares may be impaired, and it may be difficult for you to sell shares you purchased in this offering at an attractive price or at all. An inactive market may also impair our ability to raise capital by selling shares, which in turn could materially adversely affect our business.

Our operating results may fluctuate significantly, which makes our future operating results difficult to predict and could cause our operating results to fall below expectations.

Our quarterly and annual operating results may fluctuate significantly, which makes it difficult for us to predict our future operating results. These fluctuations may occur due to a variety of factors, many of which are outside of our control, including:

The cumulative effects of these factors could result in large fluctuations and unpredictability in our quarterly and annual operating results. As a result, comparing our operating results on a period-to-period basis may not be meaningful. Investors should not rely on our past results as an indication of our future performance.

This variability and unpredictability could also result in our failing to meet the expectations of industry or financial analysts or investors for any period. If our revenue or operating results fall below the expectations of analysts or investors or below any forecasts we may provide to the market, or if the forecasts we provide to the market are below the expectations of analysts or investors, the price of our common stock could decline substantially. Such a stock price decline could occur even if we have met any previously publicly stated revenue or earnings guidance.

The trading price of the shares of our common stock may be volatile, and purchasers of our common stock could lose all or part of their investment.

The market price for our stock is likely to be highly volatile and could be subject to wide fluctuations in response to various factors, some of which we cannot control. The stock market in general and the market for biopharmaceutical companies in particular have experienced extreme price and volume fluctuations that have often been unrelated or disproportionate to the operating performance of particular companies. As a result of this volatility, investors may not be able to sell their common stock at or above the price paid for the shares. These factors include:

The stock market in general, and the market for biotechnology companies in particular, have experienced extreme price and volume fluctuations that have often been unrelated or disproportionate to the operating performance of these companies. Broad market and industry factors may negatively affect the market price of our common stock, regardless of our actual operating performance. The realization of any of the risks described in this section, or any of a broad range of other risks, could have a material adverse impact on the market price of our common stock. In the past, stockholders have initiated class action lawsuits against pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies following periods of volatility in the market prices of these companies’ stock. Such litigation, if instituted, could result in substantial costs and divert management’s attention and resources.

We may not be able to satisfy listing requirements of Nasdaq or obtain or maintain a listing of our common stock on Nasdaq.

If our common stock is listed on Nasdaq, we must meet certain financial and liquidity criteria to maintain such listing. If we violate Nasdaq’s listing requirements, our common stock may be delisted. If we fail to meet any of Nasdaq’s listing standards, our common stock may be delisted. In addition, our board of directors may determine that the cost of maintaining our listing on a national securities exchange outweighs the benefits of such listing. A delisting of our common stock from Nasdaq may materially impair our stockholders’ ability to buy and sell our common stock and could have an adverse effect on the market price of, and the efficiency of the trading market for, our common stock. The delisting of our common stock could significantly impair our ability to raise capital and the value of your investment.

If you purchase shares of our common stock in this offering, you will suffer immediate and substantial dilution of your investment.

The initial public offering price of our common stock is substantially higher than the net tangible book value per share of our common stock immediately after the completion of this offering. Therefore, if you purchase shares of our common stock in this offering, you will pay a price per share that substantially exceeds our pro forma as adjusted net tangible book value per share after this offering. Based on the initial public offering price of $ per share, which is the midpoint of the price range set forth on the cover of this prospectus, you will experience immediate dilution of $ per share, representing the difference between our pro forma as adjusted net tangible book value per share as of December 31, 2025 and the initial public offering price. For a further description of the dilution that you will face immediately after this offering, see “Dilution.”

A significant portion of our total outstanding shares are restricted from immediate resale but may be sold into the market in the near future. This could cause the market price of our common stock to drop significantly, even if our business is doing well.

Sales of a substantial number of shares of our common stock in the public market could occur at any time. If our stockholders sell, or the market perceives that our stockholders intend to sell, substantial amounts of our common stock in the public market, the market price of our common stock could decline significantly and impair our ability to raise adequate capital through the sale of additional equity or equity-linked securities.

Upon the closing of this offering, we will have shares of common stock outstanding (or shares if the underwriters exercise their option to purchase additional shares from us in full), based on the number of shares outstanding as of December 31, 2025 and after giving effect to the automatic conversion of our redeemable convertible preferred stock outstanding immediately prior to this offering into shares of our common stock. Of these, the shares sold in this offering will be freely tradable immediately after this offering and substantially all of the additional shares of common stock will be available for sale in the public market beginning 180 days after the date of this prospectus following the expiration of lock-up agreements between our directors, officers, substantially all of our stockholders and the underwriters. The foregoing agreements are subject to certain limited exceptions, and Morgan Stanley & Co. LLC, Jefferies LLC and Evercore Group L.L.C. may release these stockholders from their lock-up agreements with the underwriters at any time and without notice, which would allow for earlier sales of shares in the public market. See “Underwriting.”

In addition, promptly following the effectiveness of the registration statement of which this prospectus forms a part, we intend to file one or more registration statements on Form S-8 under the Securities Act of 1933, as amended, or the Securities Act, registering the issuance of shares of common stock subject to options or other equity awards issued or reserved for future issuance under our equity incentive plans. Shares registered under these registration statements on Form S-8 will be available for sale in the public market subject to vesting arrangements and exercise of options, the lock-up agreements described above and the restrictions of Rule 144 in the case of our affiliates.

Additionally, after this offering, the holders of an aggregate of shares of our common stock, or their transferees, will have rights, subject to some conditions, to require us to file one or more registration statements covering their shares or to include their shares in registration statements that we may file for ourselves or other stockholders. If we were to register the resale of these shares, they could be freely sold in the public market. If these additional shares are sold, or if it is perceived that they will be sold, in the public market, the trading price of our common stock could decline.

Provisions in our corporate charter documents and under Delaware law may prevent or frustrate attempts by our stockholders to change our management and hinder efforts to acquire a controlling interest in us, and the market price of our common stock may be lower as a result.

Provisions in our amended and restated certificate of incorporation that will become effective immediately prior to the closing of this offering, and amended and restated bylaws that will become effective upon the effectiveness of the registration statement of which this prospectus forms a part, may significantly reduce the value of our shares to a potential acquirer or make it difficult for a third party to acquire, or attempt to acquire, control of our company, even if a change of control was considered favorable by you and other stockholders. For example, our board of directors will have the authority to issue up to shares of preferred stock and may fix the price, rights, preferences, privileges, and restrictions of the preferred stock without any further vote or action by our stockholders. The issuance of shares of preferred stock may delay or prevent a change of control transaction. As a result, the market price of our common stock and the voting and other rights of our stockholders may be adversely affected. An issuance of shares of preferred stock may result in the loss of voting control to other stockholders.

Our charter documents will also contain other provisions that could have an anti-takeover effect, including:

In addition, we are subject to the anti-takeover provisions of Section 203 of the Delaware General Corporation Law, which regulates corporate acquisitions by prohibiting Delaware corporations from engaging in specified business combinations with particular stockholders of those companies. These provisions could discourage potential acquisition proposals and could delay or prevent a change of control transaction. They could also have the effect of discouraging others from making tender offers for our common stock, including transactions that may be in your best interests. These provisions may also prevent changes in our management or limit the price that investors are willing to pay for our stock.

Concentration of ownership of our common stock among our existing executive officers, directors and principal stockholders may prevent new investors from influencing significant corporate decisions.

Following the completion of this offering, our executive officers, directors and current beneficial owners of 5% or more of our common stock and their respective affiliates will beneficially own approximately % of our outstanding common stock (assuming no exercise of the underwriters’ option to purchase additional shares and no exercise of outstanding options and without giving effect to (i) any potential purchases by such persons in this offering or (ii) issuance of options to be granted to certain of our employees and non-employee directors upon pricing of this offering). As a result, these persons, acting together, would be able to control all matters requiring stockholder approval, including the election and removal of directors, any merger, consolidation, sale of all or substantially all of our assets, or other significant corporate transactions.

Some of these persons or entities may have interests different than yours. For example, because many of these stockholders purchased their shares at prices substantially below the current market price of our common stock and have held their shares for a longer period, they may be more interested in selling our company to an acquirer than other investors, or they may want us to pursue strategies that deviate from the interests of other stockholders.

Participation in this offering by our existing stockholders and their affiliated entities may reduce the public float for our common stock.

To the extent certain of our existing stockholders and their affiliated entities participate in this offering, such purchases would reduce the non-affiliate public float of our shares, meaning the number of shares of our common stock that are not held by officers, directors and principal stockholders. A reduction in the public float could reduce the number of shares that are available to be traded at any given time, thereby adversely impacting the liquidity of our common stock and depressing the price at which you may be able to sell shares of common stock purchased in this offering.

We will have broad discretion in the use of proceeds from this offering and may invest or spend the proceeds in ways with which you do not agree and in ways that may not increase the value of your investment.

We will have broad discretion over the use of proceeds from this offering, including for any purposes described under “Use of Proceeds.” We currently intend to use the net proceeds from this offering, together with our existing cash, cash equivalents and short-term investments to fund the continued development of AP01 and AP02, our two clinical stage programs, and AP03, our preclinical stage program. See the section titled “Use of Proceeds” for additional information. Because of the number and variability of factors that will determine our use of the net proceeds from this offering, their ultimate use may vary substantially from their currently intended use. You may not agree with our decisions, and our use of the proceeds may not yield any return on your investment and the failure by our management to apply these funds effectively could harm our business. Our failure to apply the net proceeds from this offering effectively could compromise our ability to pursue our growth strategy and we might not be able to yield a significant return, if any, on our investment of these net proceeds. You will not have the opportunity to influence our decisions on how to use our net proceeds from this offering.

Because we do not anticipate paying any cash dividends on our common stock in the foreseeable future, capital appreciation of our common stock, if any, will be your sole source of gains and you may never receive a return on your investment.

You should not rely on an investment in our common stock to provide dividend income. We have not declared or paid cash dividends on our common stock to date. We currently intend to retain our future earnings, if any, to fund the development and growth of our business and do not anticipate declaring or paying any cash dividends for the foreseeable future. As a result, capital appreciation, if any, of our common stock will be your sole source of gain for the foreseeable future. Investors seeking cash dividends should not purchase our common stock. There is no guarantee that shares of our common stock will appreciate in value or even maintain the price at which stockholders have purchased their shares.

Our bylaws that will become effective upon the effectiveness of the registration statement of which this prospectus forms a part will designate certain courts as the sole and exclusive forum for certain types of actions and proceedings that may be initiated by our stockholders, which could limit our stockholders’ ability to obtain a favorable judicial forum for disputes with us or our directors, officers or employees.

Pursuant to our amended and restated bylaws that will become effective upon the effectiveness of the registration statement of which this prospectus forms a part, unless we consent in writing to the selection of an alternative forum, the Court of Chancery of the State of Delaware is the sole and exclusive forum for any state law claims for (i) any derivative action or proceeding brought on our behalf; (ii) any action asserting a claim of or based on a breach of a fiduciary duty owed by any director, officer or other employee of ours to us or our stockholders; (iii) any action asserting a claim pursuant to any provision of the Delaware General Corporation Law, or DGCL, our fourth amended and restated certificate of incorporation or our amended and restated bylaws or as to which the DGCL confers

jurisdiction on the Court of Chancery of the State of Delaware; or (iv) any action asserting a claim governed by the internal affairs doctrine, or the Delaware Forum Provision. The Delaware Forum Provision will not apply to any causes of action arising under the Securities Act or the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, as amended, or the Exchange Act. Our amended and restated bylaws further provide that unless we consent in writing to the selection of an alternative forum, the federal district courts of the United States shall be the sole and exclusive forum for resolving any complaint asserting a cause of action arising under the Securities Act, the Exchange Act, the respective rules and regulations promulgated thereunder or the Federal Forum Provision. In addition, our amended and restated bylaws will provide that any person or entity purchasing or otherwise acquiring any interest in shares of our capital stock is deemed to have notice of and consented to the Delaware Forum Provision and the Federal Forum Provision; provided, however, that stockholders cannot and will not be deemed to have waived our compliance with the federal securities laws and the rules and regulations thereunder.

We recognize that the Delaware Forum Provision and the Federal Forum Provision in our amended and restated bylaws may impose additional litigation costs on stockholders in pursuing any such claims, particularly if the stockholders do not reside in or near the State of Delaware. Additionally, the forum selection clauses in our amended and restated bylaws may limit our stockholders’ ability to bring a claim in a judicial forum that they find favorable for disputes with us or our directors, officers or employees, which may discourage the filing of lawsuits against us and our directors, officers and employees, even though an action, if successful, might benefit our stockholders. In addition, while the Delaware Supreme Court and other state courts have upheld the validity of federal forum selection provisions purporting to require claims under the Securities Act be brought in federal court, there is uncertainty as to whether other courts will enforce our Federal Forum Provision. If the Federal Forum Provision is found to be unenforceable, we may incur additional costs associated with resolving such matters. The Federal Forum Provision may also impose additional litigation costs on stockholders who assert that the provision is not enforceable or invalid. The Court of Chancery of the State of Delaware and the federal district courts of the United States may also reach different judgments or results than would other courts, including courts where a stockholder considering an action may be located or would otherwise choose to bring the action, and such judgments may be more or less favorable to us than our stockholders.

General Risk Factors

If our information technology systems or data, or those of third parties upon which we rely, are or were compromised, or fail, we could experience adverse consequences resulting from such compromise, or failure, including but not limited to regulatory investigations or actions; litigation; fines and penalties; disruptions of our business operations; reputational harm; loss of revenue or profits; and other adverse consequences.

In the ordinary course of our business, we and the third parties upon which we rely, process, collect, receive, store, use, transfer, protect, secure, dispose of, transmit, and share collectively referred to as processing, data and information, including proprietary, confidential, and sensitive data, including personal data (such as health-related data), intellectual property and trade secrets, collectively referred to as sensitive information. The secure processing, maintenance and transmission of sensitive information is critical to our operations. Despite our security measures, our information technology and infrastructure, and that of the third parties upon which we rely, may be vulnerable to attacks by hackers or other third parties or breaches due to employee error, malfeasance or other disruptions.

Cyber-attacks, malicious internet-based activity, online and offline fraud, security breaches and other similar activities threaten the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of our sensitive information and information technology systems, and those of the third parties upon which we rely. Such threats are prevalent and continue to rise, are increasingly difficult to detect, and come from a variety of sources, including traditional computer “hackers,” threat actors, “hacktivists,” organized criminal threat actors, personnel (such as through theft or misuse), sophisticated nation states and nation-state-supported actors. Some actors now engage and are expected to continue to engage in cyber-attacks, including without limitation nation-state actors for geopolitical reasons and in conjunction with military conflicts and defense activities.

These risks, as well as the number and frequency of cybersecurity events globally, may also be heightened during times of war or other major conflicts. We and the third parties upon which we rely are subject to a variety of evolving threats, including but not limited to social-engineering attacks (including through phishing attacks), malicious code (such as viruses and worms), malware (including as a result of advanced persistent threat intrusions), denial-of-service attacks (such as credential stuffing attacks), credential harvesting, personnel misconduct or error, ransomware attacks, supply-chain attacks, software bugs, server malfunctions, software, or hardware failures, loss of data or other information technology assets, adware, electrical and telecommunications failures, earthquakes, fires, floods, and other similar threats. In particular, severe ransomware attacks are becoming increasingly prevalent and can lead to significant interruptions in our operations, loss of sensitive data and income, reputational harm and diversion of funds.

We have a hybrid in-office/remote work environment, which, like other companies that have incorporated remote working, has increased risks to our information technology systems and data, as more of our employees utilize network connections, computers and devices outside our premises or network, including working at home, while in transit and in public locations.

Future business transactions (such as acquisitions or integrations) could expose us to additional cybersecurity risks and vulnerabilities, as our systems could be negatively affected by vulnerabilities present in acquired or integrated entities’ systems and technologies. Furthermore, we may discover security issues that were not found during due diligence of such acquired or integrated entities, and it may be difficult to integrate companies into our information technology environment and security program.

We currently rely on third-party service providers and technologies to operate critical business systems to process sensitive information in a variety of contexts, including, without limitation, cloud-based infrastructure, employee email, and other functions. We also currently rely on commercially available tools from third-party service providers to process and safeguard our sensitive information and business data. Our ability to monitor these third parties’ information security practices is limited, and these third parties may not have adequate information security measures in place. If our third-party service providers experience a security incident or other interruption, we could experience adverse consequences. While we may be entitled to damages if our third-party service providers fail to satisfy their privacy or security-related obligations to us, any award may be insufficient to cover our damages, or we may be unable to recover such award.

Although, to our knowledge, we have not experienced any material security breach to date, we have experienced and may continue to experience threats or system failures which could cause a security incident or other interruption that could result in unauthorized, unlawful or accidental acquisition, modification, destruction, loss, alteration, encryption, disclosure of, or access to our sensitive information or our information technology systems, or those of the third parties upon whom we rely. We have not yet conducted any internal audits or penetration tests on our information technology systems, however, we have enlisted a third-party to conduct security audits or penetration tests on our behalf, and such testing will be undertaken in the first half of . Such assessments, when conducted, could indicate vulnerabilities in our information technology systems which we may not be able to effectively remediate. If a security incident were to occur and cause interruptions in our operations, it could result in a material disruption of our product development programs. For example, the loss of clinical trial data from completed or ongoing or planned clinical trials could result in delays in our regulatory approvals efforts and significantly increase our costs to recover or reproduce the data. To the extent that any disruption, security breach, or other incident results in a loss of or damage to our data or applications, other data or applications relating to our technology, or our current or future product candidates, we could incur liabilities and the further development of our current or future product candidates could be compromised or delayed. We may expend significant resources or modify our business activities (including our clinical trial activities) to try to protect against security incidents.

Certain data privacy and security obligations may require us to implement and maintain specific security measures or industry-standard or reasonable security measures to protect our information technology systems and sensitive information. While we have implemented security measures designed to protect against security incidents, there can be no assurance that these measures have been or will be effective. Additionally, certain federal, state and foreign government requirements include obligations of companies to notify individuals of security breaches involving

particular categories of personally identifiable information, which could result from breaches experienced by us or the third parties upon whom we rely. Such disclosures are costly, and the disclosure or the failure to comply with such requirements could lead to adverse consequences.

We may not be able to detect and remediate vulnerabilities in our information technology systems because the threats and techniques used to exploit the vulnerability change frequently and are often sophisticated in nature. Therefore, such vulnerabilities could be exploited but may not be detected until after a security incident has occurred. These vulnerabilities pose material risks to our business. Further, we may experience delays in developing and deploying remedial measures designed to address any such identified vulnerabilities. It is not possible to prevent all threats to our information technology systems and those of our third-party service providers, over which we exert less control, and any controls we implement to do so may prove to be ineffective.

If we (or a third party upon whom we rely) experience a security incident or are perceived to have experienced a security incident, we may experience adverse consequences, such as government enforcement actions (for example, investigations, fines, penalties, audits, and inspections); additional reporting requirements and/or oversight; restrictions on processing sensitive information (including personal data); litigation (including class claims); indemnification obligations; negative publicity; reputational harm; monetary fund diversions; interruptions in our operations (including availability of data); financial loss; and other similar harms. Security incidents and attendant consequences may cause delays or disruptions in our clinical trials and development of product candidates, deter customers from using our products, and negatively impact our ability to grow and operate our business.

Our contracts may not contain limitations of liability, and even where they do, there can be no assurance that limitations of liability in our contracts are sufficient to protect us from liabilities, damages or claims related to our data privacy and security obligations. We cannot be sure that our insurance coverage will be adequate or sufficient to protect us from or to mitigate liabilities arising out of our privacy and security practices, that such coverage will continue to be available on commercially reasonable terms or at all, or that such coverage will pay future claims. In addition to experiencing a security incident, third parties may gather, collect or infer sensitive information about us from public sources, data brokers or other means that reveals competitively sensitive details about our organization and could be used to undermine our competitive advantage or market position.

We are subject to stringent and evolving U.S. laws and regulations and foreign laws, regulations, rules, contractual obligations, policies and other obligations related to data privacy and security. Our actual or perceived failure to comply with such obligations could lead to regulatory investigations or actions; litigation; fines and penalties; disruptions of our business operations, reputational harm, loss of revenue or profits, and other adverse business consequences.

In the ordinary course of business, we and the third parties on which we rely process personal data and other sensitive information, including proprietary and confidential business data, trade secrets, intellectual property, data we collect about clinical trial participants and sensitive third-party data. Our data processing activities may subject us to numerous data privacy and security obligations, such as various laws, regulations, guidance, industry standards, external and internal privacy and security policies, contractual requirements, and other obligations relating to data privacy and security.

The legislative and regulatory framework for the processing of personal data worldwide is rapidly evolving and is likely to remain uncertain for the foreseeable future. In the U.S., there are numerous federal and state privacy and data security laws and regulations governing the collection, use, disclosure, transfer, security and processing of personal information, including federal and state health information privacy laws, federal and state security breach notification laws, federal and state consumer protection laws (e.g., Section 5 of the Federal Trade Commission Act), and other similar laws (e.g., wiretapping laws). In addition, we may obtain health information from third parties (including research institutions from which we obtain clinical trial data) that are subject to HIPAA, which imposes specific requirements relating to the privacy, security, and transmission of individually identifiable health information. Depending on the facts and circumstances, we could be subject to criminal penalties under certain privacy laws, including under HIPAA, for example, if we knowingly obtain, use or disclose individually identifiable health information maintained by a HIPAA-covered entity in a manner that is not authorized or permitted by HIPAA.

At the state level, numerous U.S. states have enacted comprehensive privacy laws that impose certain obligations on covered businesses, including providing specific disclosures in privacy notices and affording individuals certain rights concerning their personal data. Similar laws are being considered in several other states, as well as at the federal and local levels, and we expect more states to pass similar laws in the future. While these states exempt some data processed in the context of clinical trials, these developments may further complicate compliance efforts, and increase legal risk and compliance costs for us and the third parties upon whom we rely. Furthermore, other states have proposed or enacted legislation that is focused on more narrow aspects of privacy. For example, a number of states have passed laws that protect biometric information and a smaller number of states have passed or are considering laws that are specifically focused upon health privacy, such as Washington’s My Health My Data Act. The My Health My Data Act imposes new state restrictions and requirements on the processing and sale of consumer health data and creates a private right of action. In addition, all 50 U.S. states and the District of Columbia have enacted breach notification laws that may require us to notify patients, employees or regulators in the event of unauthorized access to or disclosure of personal or confidential information experienced by us or our collaborators or third-party service providers. The effects of state and federal privacy laws are potentially significant and may require us to modify our data processing practices and policies and to incur substantial costs and potential liability in an effort to comply with such legislation.

Outside the U.S., an increasing number of laws, regulations, and industry standards may govern data privacy and security. For example, in our clinical trials in Europe and/or the UK, our processing of personal data is subject to the European Union’s General Data Protection Regulation, EU GDPR, and/or the United Kingdom’s so-called “UK GDPR”, together, the GDPR. The GDPR is wide-ranging in scope and imposes numerous requirements on companies that are subject to it, including relating to having a legal basis for processing personal data, relating to the processing of sensitive data (such as health data), obtaining consent of the individuals to whom the personal data relates, providing information to individuals regarding data processing activities, implementing safeguards to protect the security and confidentiality of personal data, notification of data breaches, requiring data protection impact assessments for high risk processing and taking certain measures when engaging third-party processors. The GDPR also imposes strict rules on the transfer of personal data to countries outside the European Union and the UK, including the U.S., and permits data protection authorities to impose large penalties for violations of the GDPR, including potential fines of up to €20 million (£17.5 million) or 4% of annual global revenues, whichever is greater. The GDPR also confers a private right of action on data subjects and consumer associations to lodge complaints with supervisory authorities, seek judicial remedies, and obtain compensation for damages resulting from violations of the GDPR.

In addition, we may be unable to transfer personal data from Europe and other jurisdictions to the U.S. or other countries due to data localization requirements or limitations on cross-border data flows. Europe and other jurisdictions have enacted laws requiring data to be localized or limiting the transfer of personal data to other countries. In particular, the European Economic Area, or EEA, and the United Kingdom, or UK, have significantly restricted the transfer of personal data to the U.S. and other countries whose privacy laws it considers inadequate. Other jurisdictions may adopt similarly stringent data localization and cross-border data transfer laws. Although there are currently various mechanisms that may be used to transfer personal data from the EEA and UK to the U.S. in compliance with law, such as the EEA’s standard contractual clauses, the UK’s International Data Transfer Agreement / Addendum, and the EU-U.S. Data Privacy Framework and the UK extension thereto (which allows for transfers to relevant U.S.-based organizations who self-certify compliance and participate in the Framework), these mechanisms are subject to legal challenges and there is no assurance that we can satisfy or rely on these measures to lawfully transfer personal data to the U.S. If there is no lawful manner for us to transfer personal data from the EEA, the UK or other jurisdictions to the U.S., or if the requirements for a legally-compliant transfer are too onerous, we could face significant adverse consequences, including the interruption or degradation of our operations, the need to relocate part of or all of our business or data processing activities to other jurisdictions (such as Europe) at significant expense, increased exposure to regulatory actions, substantial fines and penalties, the inability to transfer data and work with partners, vendors and other third parties, and injunctions against our processing or transferring of personal data necessary to operate our business. Additionally, companies that transfer personal data out of the EEA and UK to other jurisdictions, particularly to the U.S., are subject to increased scrutiny from regulators, individual litigants, and activist groups. Some European regulators have ordered certain companies to suspend or permanently cease certain transfers of personal data out of Europe for allegedly violating the GDPR’s cross-border data transfer limitations.

Through executive and legislative action, the U.S. federal government has also taken steps to restrict data transactions involving persons affiliated with countries of concern such as China and Russia. For example, Executive Order 14117 on "Preventing Access to Americans' Bulk Sensitive Personal Data and United States Government-Related Data by Countries of Concern" as implemented by Department of Justice regulations (issued in December 2024, with the final rule effective April 2025) prohibits data brokerage transactions involving certain sensitive personal data categories to countries of concern. The regulations also restrict certain investment agreements, employment agreements and vendor agreements involving such data and countries of concern, absent specified cybersecurity controls. Actual or alleged violations of these regulations may be punishable by criminal and/or civil sanctions. The evolving complexity of privacy and data security legislation in the U.S. may complicate our compliance efforts and further increase our risk of regulatory enforcement, penalties and litigation.

We are also bound by contractual obligations related to data privacy and security, and our efforts to comply with such obligations may not be successful. If any privacy policies, marketing materials and other statements regarding data privacy and security that we publish are found to be deficient, lacking in transparency, deceptive, unfair or misrepresentative of our practices, we may be subject to investigation, enforcement actions by regulators, including the Federal Trade Commission, or other adverse consequences.

Laws and regulations related to privacy, data protection and security are continuing to evolve and are becoming increasingly stringent. Additionally, these laws may be subject to differing applications and interpretations, which may be inconsistent or conflict among jurisdictions, creating uncertainty. Preparing for and complying with these obligations requires us to devote significant resources, which may necessitate changes to the ways in which we collect and process data, our information technologies, systems and to exercise greater oversight and control over third parties that process personal data on our behalf.

We may at times fail (or be perceived to have failed) in our efforts to comply with our data privacy and security obligations. Moreover, despite our efforts, our personnel or third parties on whom we rely may fail to comply with such obligations, which could negatively impact our business operations. If we or the third parties we rely on fail, or are perceived to have failed, to address or comply with applicable data privacy and security obligations, we may face significant consequences, including but not limited to: government enforcement actions (e.g., investigations, fines, penalties, audits, inspections, and similar); litigation (including class-action claims); additional reporting requirements and/or oversight; bans on processing personal data; orders to destroy or not use personal data; and imprisonment of company officials. Any of these events could have a material adverse effect on our reputation, business, or financial condition, including but not limited to: loss of customers; interruptions or stoppages in our business operations (including, as relevant, clinical trials and development of product candidates); inability to process personal data or to operate in certain jurisdictions; limited ability to develop or commercialize our products; expenditure of time and resources to defend any claim or inquiry; adverse publicity; or substantial changes to our business model or operations.

Our use of new and evolving technologies, such as AI, may present risks and challenges that can impact our business, including by posing cybersecurity and other risks to our confidential and/or proprietary information, including personal information, and as a result we may be exposed to reputational harm and liability

The use of artificial intelligence in our operations and products may introduce new cybersecurity and data privacy risks, including vulnerabilities in artificial intelligence algorithms, unauthorized data access, unintended bias in automated decision-making, potential for artificial intelligence systems to process or generate personal data in ways that violate data privacy regulations, inadvertent exposure of confidential business information or trade secrets, and potential liability for discriminatory outcomes from artificial intelligence systems. In addition, if we enable or use solutions that draw controversy due to perceived or actual negative societal impact or otherwise cause harm, we may experience brand or reputational harm, competitive harm, legal liability, and defensive costs and expenses. These artificial intelligence-related risks may be difficult to detect, prevent, or remediate, and could result in regulatory investigations, fines, litigation, reputational damage, and increased compliance costs as well as impact our financial condition and results of operations.

A growing number of lawmakers are adopting laws and regulations addressing, and have focused enforcement efforts on, the development and adoption of AI technologies and use of such technologies in compliance with ethical standards and societal expectations. In the U.S., several states have passed laws to regulate various uses of AI, including to make consequential decisions, among other requirements, that were set to take effect in 2026. In addition, it is possible that U.S. states and the federal government will adopt new laws and regulations in the near future, and that existing laws and regulations may be interpreted in ways that would affect our business and the ways in which we and our customers use our AI technologies. The Executive Order on Ensuring a National Policy Framework for Artificial Intelligence, which was signed on December 11, 2025, raises significant questions regarding the future of these state laws and it is likely that companies making use of AI technologies will face a uncertain legal framework for the near future,

Outside the U.S., lawmaking and regulation relating to AI is proceeding at a similar pace. In Europe, for example, the EU’s Artificial Intelligence Act, or AI Act, entered into force on August 1, 2024 and, with some exceptions, will begin to apply as of August 2, 2026. This legislation imposes significant obligations on providers and deployers of high-risk AI systems, and encourages providers and deployers of AI systems to account for EU ethical principles in their development and use of these systems. As we continue to develop and use AI systems that are governed by the AI Act or other emerging regulations, it may necessitate ensuring higher standards of data quality, transparency, and human oversight, as well as adhering to specific ethical, accountability, and administrative requirements, some of which may increase our costs and compliance obligations. Further, potential government regulation related to AI use and ethics may also increase the cost of research and development in this area, and failure to properly remediate AI usage or ethics issues may cause public confidence in AI to be undermined, which could slow adoption of AI in our products and services.

The rapid evolution of AI technologies and the applicable regulatory frameworks governing AI will require the application of significant resources to design, develop, test and maintain such systems to help ensure that AI is implemented in a legally compliant and socially responsible manner and to minimize any real or perceived unintended harmful impacts of the use of such technologies. The use of certain AI technologies can also give rise to intellectual property risks, including by disclosing or otherwise compromising our confidential or proprietary intellectual property, or by undermining our ability to assert or defend ownership rights in intellectual property created with the assistance of AI tools. Our vendors may also incorporate AI tools into their offerings, and the providers of these AI tools may not meet existing or rapidly evolving regulatory or industry standards, including with respect to privacy and data security. Further, bad actors around the world use increasingly sophisticated methods, including through the use of AI, to engage in illegal activities involving the theft and misuse of personal information, confidential information and intellectual property. Any of these effects could damage our reputation, result in the loss of valuable property and information, cause us to breach applicable laws and regulations, and adversely impact our business.

We are subject to governmental export and import controls, economic sanctions, anti-corruption laws and regulations of the U.S. and other jurisdictions. We can face criminal liability and other serious consequences for violations of these laws and regulations, which could harm our business.

We are subject to and required to comply with various export control, import and trade and economic sanctions laws and regulations, including the U.S. Export Administration Regulations, U.S. Customs regulations and sanctions regulations administered by the U.S. Treasury Department’s Office of Foreign Assets Controls. These laws may prohibit or restrict our ability to transfer, sell or supply, our products to certain governments, persons, entities, countries, and territories, including those that are the target of comprehensive sanctions or an embargo.

We are also subject to anti-corruption and anti-bribery laws, including the U.S. Foreign Corrupt Practices Act of 1977, as amended, or FCPA, the U.S. domestic bribery statute contained in 18 U.S.C. § 201, the U.S. Travel Act, and other state and national anti-bribery and anti-money laundering laws in the countries in which we conduct activities. Anti-corruption laws, including the FCPA, generally prohibit companies and their employees, agents, CROs, contractors and other partners from offering, promising, giving, soliciting or authorizing others to give or receive anything of value, either directly or indirectly, to or from a non-U.S. government official in order to influence official action, or otherwise obtain or retain business. The FCPA also requires public companies to make and keep books and records that accurately and fairly reflect the transactions of the corporation and to devise and maintain an

adequate system of internal accounting controls. We can be held liable for the corrupt or other illegal activities of our employees, agents, CROs, contractors, and other partners, even if we do not explicitly authorize or have actual knowledge of such activities. Any violation of the laws and regulations described above may result in substantial civil and criminal fines and penalties, imprisonment, the loss of export or import privileges, debarment, tax reassessments, breach of contract and fraud litigation, reputational harm, and other consequences.

If we fail to maintain an effective system of internal controls over financial reporting, our ability to produce accurate financial statements on a timely basis could be impaired.

After the closing of this offering, we will be subject to the reporting requirements of the Exchange Act, the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002, or the Sarbanes-Oxley Act, and the rules and regulations of the stock market on which our common stock is listed. The Sarbanes-Oxley Act requires, among other things, that we maintain effective disclosure controls and procedures and internal control over financial reporting.

Commencing with our second annual report on Form 10-K for the fiscal year ending December 31, , we must perform system and process evaluation and testing of our internal control over financial reporting to allow management to report on the effectiveness of our internal control over financial reporting in our Form 10-K filing for that year, as required by Section 404 of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act. This will require that we incur substantial additional professional fees and internal costs to expand our accounting and finance functions and that we expend significant management efforts. Prior to this offering, we have never been required to test our internal control within a specified period, and, as a result, we may experience difficulty in meeting these reporting requirements in a timely manner. In addition, when we lose our status as an “emerging growth company” and if we do not otherwise qualify as a “non-accelerated filer,” our independent registered public accounting firm will be required to attest to the effectiveness of our internal control over financial reporting, which will require additional expense, resources and management commitment.

We may identify material weaknesses in our system of internal controls over financial reporting that could result in a material misstatement of our consolidated financial statements. Our internal control over financial reporting will not prevent or detect all errors and all fraud. A control system, no matter how well designed and operated, can provide only reasonable, not absolute, assurance that the control system’s objectives will be met. Because of the inherent limitations in all control systems, no evaluation of controls can provide absolute assurance that misstatements due to error or fraud will not occur or that all control issues and instances of fraud will be detected.

If we are not able to comply with the requirements of Section 404 of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act in a timely manner, or if we are unable to maintain proper and effective internal controls over financial reporting, we may not be able to produce timely and accurate consolidated financial statements. If that were to happen, the market price of our stock could decline and we could be subject to sanctions or investigations by the stock exchange on which our common stock is listed, the SEC or other regulatory authorities.

Our disclosure controls and procedures may not prevent or detect all errors or acts of fraud.

Upon completion of this offering, we will become subject to certain reporting requirements of the Exchange Act. Our disclosure controls and procedures are designed to reasonably assure that information required to be disclosed by us in reports we file or submit under the Exchange Act is accumulated and communicated to management, recorded, processed, summarized, and reported within the time periods specified in the rules and forms of the SEC. We believe that any disclosure controls and procedures or internal controls and procedures, no matter how well conceived and operated, can provide only reasonable, not absolute, assurance that the objectives of the control system are met. These inherent limitations include the realities that judgments in decision-making can be faulty, and that breakdowns can occur because of simple error or mistake. Additionally, controls can be circumvented by the individual acts of some persons, by collusion of two or more people, or by an unauthorized override of the controls. Accordingly, because of the inherent limitations in our control system, misstatements or insufficient disclosures due to error or fraud may occur and not be detected.

We might not be able to utilize a significant portion of our net operating loss carryforwards, which could harm our profitability.

We have generated, and expect to continue to generate, significant federal and state net operating loss, or NOL, carryforwards. As of December 31, 2025, we had federal and state net operating loss carryforwards of $ million and $ million, respectively. Under current tax laws and regulations, these NOL carryforwards could expire unused and be unavailable to offset future income tax liabilities. Under the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act, as modified by the Coronavirus Aid, Relief, and Economic Security Act, federal NOLs incurred in taxable years beginning after December 31, 2017 generally may be carried forward indefinitely, but the deductibility of such federal NOLs is limited.

Under Sections 382 and 383 of the Internal Revenue Code of 1986, as amended, or the Code, if a corporation undergoes an “ownership change,” generally defined as a greater than 50 percentage point change (by value) in its equity ownership by one or more “5 percent shareholders” over a three-year period, the corporation’s ability to use its pre-change NOLs and other pre-change tax attributes (such as research and development tax credits) to offset its post-change income or taxes may be limited. A corporation that experiences an ownership change will generally be subject to an annual limitation on the use of its pre-ownership change NOLs equal to the value of the corporation immediately before the ownership change, multiplied by the long-term tax-exempt rate (subject to certain adjustments). We may have experienced ownership changes in the past and may experience ownership changes as a result of this offering and/or subsequent shifts in our stock ownership (some of which are outside our control). There is also a risk that due to regulatory changes, such as suspensions on the use of NOLs by federal or state taxing authorities or other unforeseen reasons, portions of our existing NOLs could expire or otherwise be unavailable to reduce future income tax liabilities. As a result, our ability to use our pre-change NOLs and tax credits to offset future taxable income, if any, or taxes could be subject to limitations. Similar provisions of state tax law may also apply. As a result, even if we attain profitability, we may be unable to use a material portion of our NOLs and tax credits.

Changes in tax law could adversely affect our business and financial condition.

U.S. federal, state, local, and foreign tax laws, regulations and administrative guidance are subject to change as a result of the legislative process and review and interpretation by the U.S. Internal Revenue Service, or IRS, the U.S. Treasury Department and other taxing authorities. Changes to tax laws (which changes may have retroactive application), including with respect to net operating losses and research and development tax credits, could adversely affect us or holders of our common stock. For example, on July 4, 2025, President Donald Trump signed the One Big Beautiful Bill Act into law. Key tax provisions included the restoration of 100% bonus depreciation for certain qualified property, immediate expensing for domestic research and experimental expenditures and the ability to make elective adjustments for prior years, changes to the Section 163(j) interest limitations and updates to net CFC tested income (formerly GILTI) and FDII rules. In recent years, many other similar changes have been made and changes are likely to continue to occur in the future. Future changes in tax laws could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition, results of operations, or cash flow. We urge investors to consult with their legal and tax advisers regarding the implications of potential changes in tax laws on an investment in our common stock.

We are eligible to be treated as an “emerging growth company” and a “smaller reporting company” and, as a result of the reduced disclosure and governance requirements applicable to emerging growth companies and smaller reporting companies, our common stock may be less attractive to investors.

We are an “emerging growth company” as defined in the Jumpstart Our Business Startups Act of 2012, or the JOBS Act. For as long as we continue to be an emerging growth company, we may take advantage of certain exemptions from reporting requirements that are applicable to other public companies that are not emerging growth companies, including:

We cannot predict if investors will find our common stock less attractive because we will rely on these exemptions. If some investors find our common stock less attractive as a result, there may be a less active trading market for our common stock and our stock price may be more volatile. We will remain an emerging growth company until the earlier of (1) the last day of the fiscal year (a) following the fifth anniversary of the closing of our initial public offering, (b) in which we have total annual gross revenue of at least $1.235 billion or (c) in which we are deemed to be a large accelerated filer, which means, among other conditions, that the market value of our common stock that is held by non-affiliates exceeds $700 million as of the last business day of our most recently completed second fiscal quarter, and (2) the date on which we have issued more than $1.0 billion in non-convertible debt during the prior three-year period.

Under Section 107(b) of the JOBS Act, emerging growth companies can delay adopting new or revised accounting standards until such time as those standards apply to private companies, and we expect to rely on this exemption. Even after we no longer qualify as an emerging growth company, we may, under certain circumstances, still qualify as a “smaller reporting company,” which would allow us to take advantage of many of the same exemptions from disclosure requirements, including reduced disclosure obligations regarding executive compensation in our periodic reports and proxy statements.

We will incur increased costs and demands upon management as a result of being a public company.

As a public company, we will incur significant additional legal, accounting and other costs that we did not incur as a private company. We will be subject to the reporting requirements of the Exchange Act, which will require, among other things, that we file with the SEC annual, quarterly and current reports with respect to our business and financial condition. In addition, Sarbanes-Oxley, as well as rules subsequently adopted by the SEC and Nasdaq to implement provisions of Sarbanes-Oxley, impose significant requirements on public companies, including requiring establishment and maintenance of effective disclosure and financial controls and certain corporate governance practices. Further, pursuant to the Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act of 2010, the SEC has adopted additional rules and regulations in these areas, such as mandatory “say on pay” voting requirements that will apply to us when we cease to be an emerging growth company. Stockholder activism, the current political environment and the current high level of government intervention and regulatory reform may lead to substantial new regulations and disclosure obligations, which may lead to additional compliance costs and impact the manner in which we operate our business in ways we cannot currently anticipate. We expect the rules and regulations applicable to public companies to substantially increase our legal and financial compliance costs and to make some activities more time-consuming and costly. If these requirements divert the attention of our management and personnel from other business concerns, they could have an adverse effect on our business. The increased costs will increase our net loss, and may require us to reduce costs in other areas of our business.

Unfavorable global economic conditions could adversely affect our business, financial condition or results of operations.

Our operations could be adversely affected by general conditions in the global economy and in the global financial markets and uncertainty about economic stability. The global economy and financial markets have experienced extreme volatility and disruptions, including severely diminished liquidity and credit availability, declines in consumer confidence, inflation, declines in economic growth, global supply chain disruptions, and uncertainty about economic stability. The global economy and financial markets may also be adversely affected by the current or anticipated impact of military conflict, terrorism or other geopolitical events, including the ongoing war in Ukraine

and the increasingly strained relationship between the U.S. and China. Sanctions or tariffs imposed by the U.S. and other countries in response to such conflicts may adversely impact the financial markets and the global economy, and the economic countermeasures by the affected countries or others could exacerbate market and economic instability.

There can be no assurance that further deterioration in credit and financial markets and confidence in economic conditions will not occur. A severe or prolonged economic downturn could result in a variety of risks to our business, including weakened demand for any product candidates we may develop and our ability to raise additional capital when needed on acceptable terms, if at all. A weak or declining economy could also strain our suppliers, possibly resulting in supply disruption. If the equity and credit markets deteriorate, it may make any necessary equity or debt financing more difficult, more costly, and more dilutive. Failure to secure any necessary financing in a timely manner and on favorable terms could impair our ability to achieve our growth strategy, could harm our financial performance and stock price and could require us to delay or abandon clinical development plans. In addition, there is a risk that our current or future service providers, manufacturers or other collaborators may not survive such difficult economic times, which could directly affect our ability to attain our operating goals on schedule and on budget. We cannot anticipate all of the ways in which the current economic climate and financial market conditions could adversely impact our business.

We may become involved in litigation that could divert management’s attention and harm our business, and insurance coverage may not be sufficient to cover all costs and damages.

We have in the past and may in the future be subject to litigation claims through the ordinary course of our business operations regarding, but not limited to, securities litigation, employment matters, security of patient and employee personal data, contractual relations with collaborators and licensors and intellectual property rights. For example, on June 1, 2017, Genoa, a QoL Healthcare Company, LLC filed a lawsuit against us for trademark infringement which resulted in our company changing its name to the current name. Additionally, from November 2020 through July 2024, Avalyn was involved in a dispute on matters related to a Stock Purchase Agreement that concluded in a confidential settlement agreement. We may be exposed to similar litigation even if no wrongdoing on our part has occurred. Litigation to defend ourselves against claims by third parties, or to enforce any rights that we may have against third parties, could result in substantial costs and diversion of our resources, causing a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition, results of operations or cash flows, and we may not have insurance coverage for such claims or our insurance coverage may not adequately cover all costs and damages related to such claims. Moreover, adverse publicity about legal action against us could damage our reputation and brand image, even if the legal action is unfounded or not material to our operations.

SPECIAL NOTE REGARDING FORWARD-LOOKING STATEMENTS

This prospectus contains forward-looking statements about us and our industry that involve substantial risks and uncertainties. All statements other than statements of historical facts contained in this prospectus, including statements regarding our future results of operations and financial position, business strategy, product candidates, planned preclinical studies and clinical trials, results of preclinical studies, clinical trials, research and development costs, regulatory approvals, commercial strategy, timing and likelihood of success, as well as plans and objectives of management for future operations, are forward-looking statements. These statements involve known and unknown risks, uncertainties, and other important factors that are in some cases beyond our control and may cause our actual results, performance or achievements to be materially different from any future results, performance or achievements expressed or implied by the forward-looking statements.

In some cases, you can identify forward-looking statements by terms such as “may,” “will,” “should,” “would,” “expect,” “plan,” “anticipate,” “could,” “intend,” “target,” “project,” “believe,” “estimate,” “predict,” “potential,” or “continue” or the negative of these terms or other similar expressions. Forward-looking statements contained in this prospectus include, but are not limited to, statements about:

We have based these forward-looking statements largely on our current expectations and projections about our business, the industry in which we operate and financial trends that we believe may affect our business, financial condition, results of operations and prospects, and these forward-looking statements are not guarantees of future performance or development. These forward-looking statements speak only as of the date of this prospectus and are subject to a number of risks, uncertainties and assumptions described in “Risk Factors” and elsewhere in this prospectus. Because forward-looking statements are inherently subject to risks and uncertainties, some of which cannot be predicted or quantified, you should not rely on these forward-looking statements as predictions of future events. The events and circumstances reflected in our forward-looking statements may not be achieved or occur and actual results could differ materially from those projected in the forward-looking statements. Except as required by applicable law, we do not plan to publicly update or revise any forward-looking statements contained herein until after we distribute this prospectus, whether as a result of any new information, future events or otherwise. Our forward-looking statements do not reflect the potential impact of any future acquisitions, mergers, dispositions, collaborations, joint ventures or investments that we may make or enter into.

In addition, statements that “we believe” and similar statements reflect our beliefs and opinions on the relevant subject. These statements are based upon information available to us as of the date of this prospectus, and while we believe such information forms a reasonable basis for such statements, such information may be limited or incomplete, and our statements should not be read to indicate that we have conducted an exhaustive inquiry into, or review of, all potentially available relevant information. These statements are inherently uncertain, and you are cautioned not to unduly rely upon these statements.

You should read this prospectus and the documents that we reference in this prospectus and have filed with the SEC as exhibits to the registration statement of which this prospectus is a part with the understanding that our actual future results, levels of activity, performance and events and circumstances may be materially different from what we expect.

USE OF PROCEEDS

We estimate that the net proceeds from the sale of our common stock in this offering will be approximately $    million (or approximately $    million if the underwriters exercise their option to purchase additional shares of our common stock in full) based on an assumed initial public offering price of $    per share, which is the midpoint of the price range set forth on the cover page of this prospectus, after deducting the estimated underwriting discounts and commissions and estimated offering expenses payable by us.

Each $1.00 increase or decrease in the assumed initial public offering price of $    per share, which is the midpoint of the price range set forth on the cover of this prospectus, would increase or decrease, as applicable, the net proceeds to us from this offering by $    million, assuming the number of shares offered by us, as set forth on the cover page of this prospectus, remains the same, and after deducting the estimated underwriting discounts and commissions and estimated offering expenses payable by us. Similarly, each increase or decrease of 1.0 million shares in the number of shares of common stock offered by us, as set forth on the cover page of this prospectus, would increase or decrease, as applicable, the net proceeds to us from this offering by $    million, assuming the assumed initial public offering price of $    per share remains the same, and after deducting the estimated underwriting discounts and commissions and estimated offering expenses payable by us.

The principal purposes of this offering are to create a public market for our common stock and thereby facilitate future access to the public equity markets, increase our visibility in the marketplace, and obtain additional capital to support our operations. We currently intend to use the net proceeds from this offering, together with our existing cash, cash equivalents and short-term investments, as follows:

We may use a portion of the remaining net proceeds and our existing cash, cash equivalents and short-term investments to in-license, acquire, or invest in complementary businesses, technologies, products, or assets. However, we have no current commitments, agreements, understandings or obligations to do so.

We believe, based on our current operating plan, that the net proceeds from this offering, together with our existing cash, cash equivalents and short-term investments, will be sufficient to fund our operations through . We have based this estimate on assumptions that may prove to be wrong, and we could use our available capital resources sooner than we currently expect. We do not have any committed external source of funds.

Our expected use of proceeds from this offering along with our existing cash, cash equivalents and short-term investments described above represents our current intentions based on our present plans and business condition. As of the date of this prospectus, we cannot predict with certainty all of the particular uses for the net proceeds to be received upon the completion of this offering or the actual amounts that we will spend on the uses set forth above. We expect that we will require additional funds in order to fully accomplish the specified uses of the proceeds of this offering. The amounts and timing of our actual expenditures will depend on numerous factors, including progress of our research and development, the status of and results from preclinical studies and clinical trials that we are conducting or may conduct in the future, and other factors described in the section titled “Risk Factors,” as well as the amount of cash used in our operations and any unforeseen cash needs. Therefore, our actual expenditures may differ materially from the estimates described above. Moreover, our estimates of the costs to fund our trials are based on the current designs of the trials. If we were to modify the design of any of these trials, for instance, to increase the number of patients in the trials, our costs to fund the trials could increase. We may find it necessary or advisable to use the net proceeds for other purposes.

We will have broad discretion over how to use the net proceeds to us from this offering and investors will be relying on the judgment of our management regarding the application of the net proceeds. Pending our use of the net proceeds from this offering, we intend to invest the net proceeds in a variety of capital preservation instruments, including short-term and long-term interest-bearing instruments, investment-grade securities, and direct or guaranteed obligations of the U.S. government. We cannot predict whether the proceeds invested will yield a favorable return.

DIVIDEND POLICY

We have never declared or paid cash dividends on our capital stock. We do not anticipate declaring or paying, in the foreseeable future, any cash dividends on our capital stock. We intend to retain all available funds and future earnings, if any, to fund the development and expansion of our business. Any future determination regarding the declaration and payment of dividends, if any, will be at the discretion of our board of directors, subject to applicable laws, and will depend on then-existing conditions, including our financial condition, operating results, contractual restrictions, capital requirements, business prospects, and other factors our board of directors may deem relevant. Investors should not purchase our common stock with the expectation of receiving cash dividends. In addition, our ability to pay cash dividends on our capital stock in the future may be limited by the terms of any future debt or preferred securities we issue or any credit facilities we enter into.

CAPITALIZATION

The following table sets forth our existing cash, cash equivalents and short-term investments, and our capitalization as of December 31, 2025:

The pro forma as adjusted information below is illustrative only, and our capitalization following the completion of this offering will be adjusted based on the actual initial public offering price and other terms of this offering determined at pricing. Cash, cash equivalents and short-term investments are not components of our capitalization.

You should read this information together with our consolidated financial statements and the related notes included elsewhere in this prospectus, and the section titled “Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations.”

The number of shares of our common stock that will be outstanding after this offering on a pro forma and pro forma as adjusted basis is based on shares of common stock outstanding as of December 31, 2025, after giving effect to the Preferred Stock Conversion, and excludes:

DILUTION

If you invest in our common stock in this offering, your ownership interest will be diluted immediately to the extent of the difference between the initial public offering price per share of our common stock and the pro forma as adjusted net tangible book value per share of our common stock immediately after this offering.

Our historical net tangible book value (deficit) as of December 31, 2025 was $ million, or $ per share of our common stock. Our historical net tangible book value (deficit) represents the amount of our total tangible assets less our total liabilities and the carrying value of our convertible preferred stock, which is not included within stockholders’ deficit. Historical net tangible book value (deficit) per share represents historical net tangible book value (deficit) divided by shares of our common stock outstanding as of December 31, 2025.

Our pro forma net tangible book value (deficit) as of December 31, 2025 was $ million, or $  per share. Pro forma net tangible book value (deficit) per share represents the amount of our total tangible assets less our total liabilities, divided by the number of shares of our common stock as of December 31, 2025, after giving effect to (i) the Preferred Stock Conversion and (ii) the filing and effectiveness of our amended and restated certificate of incorporation, which will occur immediately prior to the completion of this offering. Pro forma net tangible book value (deficit) per share represents pro forma net tangible book value (deficit) divided by the total number of shares outstanding as of December 31, 2025, after giving effect to the pro forma adjustments described above.

After giving further effect to the issuance and sale of    shares of common stock that we are offering at the assumed initial public offering price of $ per share, which is the midpoint of the price range set forth on the cover page of this prospectus, and after deducting the estimated underwriting discounts and commissions and estimated offering expenses payable by us, our pro forma as adjusted net tangible book value (deficit) as of December 31, 2025 would have been $    million, or $    per share. This amount represents an immediate increase in pro forma net tangible book value (deficit) of $     per share to our existing stockholders and an immediate dilution in pro forma net tangible book value (deficit) of $     per share to new investors purchasing shares of common stock in this offering.

Dilution per share to new investors is determined by subtracting pro forma as adjusted net tangible book value (deficit) per share after this offering from the initial public offering price per share paid by new investors. The following table illustrates this dilution (without giving effect to any exercise by the underwriters of their option to purchase additional shares):

The dilution information discussed above is illustrative only and may change based on the actual initial public offering price and other terms of this offering. Each $1.00 increase or decrease, as applicable, in the assumed initial public offering price of $    per share, which is the midpoint of the price range set forth on the cover page of this prospectus, would increase or decrease, as applicable, the pro forma as adjusted net tangible book value per share after this offering by $    , and dilution per share to new investors purchasing common stock in this offering by $    , assuming that the number of shares of common stock offered by us, as set forth on the cover page of this prospectus, remains the same and after deducting the estimated underwriting discounts and commissions and estimated offering expenses payable by us. Similarly, each increase or decrease, as applicable, of 1.0 million shares in the number of shares of common stock offered by us would increase or decrease, as applicable, our pro forma as adjusted net

tangible book value (deficit) per share after this offering by $    per share, in each case, and increase or decrease, as applicable, the dilution to investors participating in this offering by $    per share, assuming no change in the assumed initial public offering price, and after deducting the estimated underwriting discounts and commissions and estimated offering expenses payable by us.

If the underwriters exercise their option to purchase additional shares of our common stock in full, our pro forma as adjusted net tangible book value (deficit) after the offering would be $     per share, representing an immediate increase in pro forma as adjusted net tangible book value (deficit) of $     per share to existing stockholders and immediate dilution in pro forma as adjusted net tangible book value (deficit) dilution of $     per share to new investors, in each case assuming an initial public offering price of $     per share, which is the midpoint of the price range set forth on the cover page of this prospectus, and after deducting the estimated underwriting discounts and commissions and estimated offering expenses payable by us.

The following table summarizes on the pro forma as adjusted basis described above, as of December 31, 2025, the total number of shares of common stock purchased from us on an as-converted basis, the total consideration paid or to be paid to us, and the average price per share paid by existing stockholders or to be paid by new investors in this offering, based on the assumed initial public offering price of $     per share, which is the midpoint of the price range set forth on the cover page of this prospectus, before deducting the estimated underwriting discounts and commissions and estimated offering expenses payable by us. New investors purchasing shares of our common stock in this offering will pay an average price per share substantially higher than our existing stockholders paid.

The table above assumes no exercise of the underwriters’ option to purchase additional shares in this offering. If the underwriters exercise their option to purchase additional shares of common stock from us in full, our existing stockholders would own  %, and new investors purchasing shares of our common stock in this offering would own  %, of the total number of shares of our common stock outstanding immediately after the completion of this offering.

The number of shares of our common stock that will be outstanding after this offering is based on shares outstanding as of December 31, 2025, after giving effect to the Preferred Stock Conversion, and excludes:

To the extent any outstanding options or warrants are exercised, new options or other equity awards are issued under our equity incentive plans, or we issue additional shares of common stock in the future, there will be further dilution to new investors. In addition, we may choose to raise additional capital because of market conditions or strategic considerations, even if we believe that we have sufficient funds for our current or future operating plans. If we raise additional capital through the sale of equity or convertible debt securities, the issuance of these securities could result in further dilution to our stockholders.

MANAGEMENT’S DISCUSSION AND ANALYSIS OF FINANCIAL CONDITION AND RESULTS OF OPERATIONS

You should read the following discussion and analysis of our financial condition and results of operations in conjunction with our audited consolidated financial statements for the years ended December 31, 2024 and 2025, and related notes and other financial information included elsewhere in this prospectus. This discussion and analysis and other parts of this prospectus contain forward-looking statements based upon our current plans and expectations that involve risks, uncertainties and assumptions, such as statements regarding our plans, strategies, objectives, expectations, intentions and beliefs. The historical results are not necessarily indicative of results that may be expected in the future. Our actual results and the timing of events could differ materially from those anticipated in these forward-looking statements as a result of various factors, including those set forth under “Risk Factors” and elsewhere in this prospectus. You should carefully read the “Risk Factors” section of this prospectus to gain an understanding of the important factors that could cause actual results to differ materially from our forward-looking statements. Please also see “Special Note Regarding Forward-Looking Statements.” Our historical results are not necessarily indicative of the results that may be expected for any period in the future.

Overview

We are a clinical-stage biopharmaceutical company on a mission to revolutionize the current treatment landscape for rare respiratory diseases, including progressive pulmonary fibrosis, or PPF, idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, or IPF, and other interstitial lung diseases, or ILDs.

Since our inception in 2011, we have incurred significant operating losses and have not generated any revenue. To date, we have funded our operations primarily with aggregate gross proceeds of $388.8 million from the sale and issuance of our preferred stock and convertible notes.

Due to our significant research, development, and manufacturing expenditures, we have accumulated substantial losses and negative cash flows since our inception, including a net loss of $49.7 million for the year ended December 31, 2024. As of December 31, 2024, we had an accumulated deficit of $180.2 million.

We expect our expenses and operating losses will increase substantially as we:

In addition, we have several clinical development, regulatory, and commercial milestones, as well as royalty payment obligations under our licensing arrangement and other agreements. Our net losses may fluctuate significantly from quarter to quarter and year to year, depending on the timing of our ongoing and planned clinical trials and our expenditures on other research and development activities.

We do not have any products approved for sale and have not generated any revenue from product sales. We will not generate revenue from product sales unless and until we successfully complete clinical development and obtain regulatory approval for our current and any future product candidates, which we expect will take a number of years or may never occur. As a result, we will need substantial additional funding to support our continuing operations and pursue our growth strategy. Until we can generate significant revenue from product sales, if ever, we expect to finance our operations through a combination of equity offerings, debt financings or other capital sources, potentially including collaborations, licenses, or other strategic arrangements. See the section titled “—Liquidity and Capital Resources.” We may be unable to raise additional funds or enter into such other agreements or arrangements when needed on favorable terms, or at all. If we fail to raise capital or enter into such agreements as, and when, needed, we may have to significantly delay, scale back or discontinue the development and commercialization of one or more of our product candidates, or grant rights to develop and market our product candidates even if we would otherwise prefer to develop and market such product candidates ourselves.

Due to the numerous risks and uncertainties associated with drug development, we are unable to accurately predict the timing or amount of increased expenses or the timing of when, or if, we will be able to achieve or maintain profitability. Even if we generate product sales, we may not become profitable. If we fail to become profitable or are unable to sustain profitability on a continuing basis, then we may be unable to continue our operations at planned levels and be forced to reduce or terminate our operations.

As of December 31, 2024, we had cash, cash equivalents, and marketable securities of $118.1 million. During 2025, we received aggregate gross proceeds of $100.4 million from the issuance of 126,036,334 shares of Series D preferred stock. We believe, based on our current operating plans, that the estimated net proceeds from this offering, together with our existing cash, cash equivalents and investments in marketable securities, will enable us to fund our operating expenses and capital expenditures through . We have based this estimate on assumptions that may prove to be wrong, and we could exhaust our available capital resources sooner than we expect. See the sections titled “—Liquidity and Capital Resources” and “Risk Factors—Risks Related to Our Limited Operating History, Financial Condition and Need for Additional Capital” included elsewhere in this prospectus.

Material Agreements

Below is a summary of the key terms for our material agreements. For a more detailed description of the agreements, see the section titled “Business—Material Agreement.”

PARI License Agreement and Material Transfer Agreement

As consideration for the PARI License Agreement, we paid a non-refundable up-front initial payment of 400 thousand EUR ($0.4 million). To date, we have met one developmental milestone, for which the payment of 500 thousand EUR ($0.6 million) was expensed to research and development when the milestone was met. There were no regulatory milestones achieved for the year ended December 31, 2024.

Settlement Agreement

The Company was a party to a lawsuit filed in November 2020, in which the counterparty alleged that the Company had not used commercially reasonable efforts to investigate certain patent rights and develop a compound covered by those patent rights that were sold to the Company in March 2017 through a Stock Purchase Agreement, or SPA. In May 2024, the Company and the counterparty agreed to a final and binding term sheet to resolve the litigation. The settlement required the Company to pay the counterparty $4 million within 15 days of the parties’ execution of a definitive agreement, which occurred in July 2024 and was previously included in litigation liability as of December 31, 2023. In addition, the Company agreed to pay the counterparty royalties (less than 1%) on net sales of the monotherapy assets AP01 (inhaled pirfenidone) and AP02 (inhaled nintedanib). As part of the agreement, the parties released all claims related to the litigation, the SPA, or any other agreement related to counterparty and the Company. To date, the Company has incurred a total of $9.6 million of legal expenses related to the lawsuit, including $1.4 million during the year ended December 31, 2024. The expenses are included in general and administrative expenses in the Company’s consolidated statements of comprehensive loss.

Components of Results of Operations

Operating Expenses

Our operating expenses consist of (i) research and development expenses and (ii) general and administrative expenses.

Research and Development Expenses

Research and development expenses consist primarily of costs associated with the preclinical and clinical development of our current and potential future product candidates. Our research and development expenses include direct costs specifically attributable to our programs including external expenses incurred under arrangements with third parties, such as contract research organizations, or CROs, contract manufacturing organizations, or CMOs, consultants and our scientific advisors, and the manufacturing expenditures, including costs for laboratory supplies, research materials and reagents, as well as indirect costs that are not directly attributable to a specific program such as:

We recognize research and development costs in the periods in which they are incurred. Most of our research and development expenses have been related to identifying and developing our product candidates. Typically, external expenses are recognized based on an evaluation of the progress to completion of specific tasks using information provided to us by our service providers as of each reporting date. Advance payments that we make for goods or services to be received in the future for use in research and development activities are recorded as prepaid expenses, which are expensed as the related goods are delivered or the services are performed, or when it is no longer expected that the goods will be delivered, or the services rendered. Significant judgments and estimates are made in determining the accrued, or prepaid expense balances at the end of any reporting period.

External costs represent a significant portion of our research and development expenses, which we track on a program-by-program basis following the nomination of a product candidate. Our internal research and development expenses consist primarily of personnel-related expenses, including stock-based compensation expenses and allocated expenses. We do not track our internal research and development expenses on a program-by-program basis as they relate to costs that are deployed across multiple programs.

Product candidates in later stages of development generally have higher development costs than those in earlier stages resulting from larger and more complex clinical trials, manufacturing scale-up and an increase in research and development headcount to oversee these activities. As a result, management expects that our research and development expenses will increase substantially over the next several years as we potentially advance our product candidates into later-stage development efforts.

General and Administrative Expenses

General and administrative expenses consist primarily of personnel-related costs, including salaries, payroll tax, bonuses, benefits and stock-based compensation charges for those individuals in executive, legal, finance, human resources, information technology, and other administrative functions. Other significant costs include professional service fees, including legal fees relating to intellectual property and corporate matters, and auditing, accounting, tax, and consulting services, as well as facilities and depreciation expense, and other general and administrative expenses that are allocated. We recognize general and administrative expenses in the periods in which they are incurred.

We anticipate that our general and administrative expenses will increase following this offering, as a result of increased personnel costs, including salaries, benefits and stock-based compensation expense, patent costs for our product candidates, expanded infrastructure and higher legal, consulting and accounting services associated with maintaining compliance with the listing requirements of the Nasdaq Stock Market LLC and rules and regulations promulgated under the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, as amended, or the Exchange Act, investor relations costs and director and officer insurance premiums associated with being a public company.

Other Income (Expense)

Our other income (expense) consists primarily of interest income which is interest earned and the amortization or accretion of discounts or premiums on our cash equivalents and investments in marketable securities.

Interest Income

Interest income consists primarily of interest earned and the amortization or accretion of discounts or premiums on our cash equivalents and investments in marketable securities.

Other Expense

Other expense consists of realized and unrealized foreign currency gains and losses, as well as gains and losses on disposals of fixed assets.

Income Taxes

Since our inception, we have not recorded any income tax benefits or expenses for the net losses we have incurred in each period or for our earned research and development tax credits, as we believe, based upon the weight of available evidence, that it is more likely than not that all of our net operating loss carryforwards and tax credits will not be realized. As of December 31, 2024, we had net operating loss carryforwards, or NOLs, for federal and state income tax purposes of $98.9 million and $2.4 million, respectively. The federal NOLs are not subject to expiration and the state NOLs begin to expire in 2043. These loss carryforwards are available to reduce future federal taxable income, if any. As of December 31, 2024, we have recorded a full valuation allowance against our net deferred tax assets.

Results of Operations

Comparison of the Year Ended December 31, 2025 and 2024

The following table summarizes our results of operations (in thousands):

Research and Development Expenses

The following table summarizes our research and development expenses (in thousands):

Research and development expenses for the year ended December 31, 2024 were $45.8 million, and were primarily attributed to:

General and Administrative Expenses

The following table summarizes our general and administrative expenses (in thousands):

General and administrative expenses for the year ended December 31, 2024 were $11.4 million, and were primarily attributable to:

Other Income

Other income for the year ended December 31, 2024 was $7.4 million and was primarily attributed to interest income earned on our cash equivalents and marketable securities.

Liquidity and Capital Resources

Sources of Liquidity

Since our inception, we have not generated any revenue from product sales and have incurred significant operating losses and negative cash flows from operations. We expect to continue to incur significant expenses and operating losses for the foreseeable future as we advance the clinical development of our product candidates and any future product candidates. As such, we expect our research and development and general and administrative costs will continue to increase significantly, including the costs associated with operating as a public company following the completion of this offering. As a result, we will need additional capital to fund our operations, which we may obtain from additional equity, debt financings, or strategic agreements.

To date, we have funded our operations primarily from the sale of proceeds of preferred stock and convertible notes. As of December 31, 2024, we had $118.1 million in cash, cash equivalents, and marketable securities. In 2025, we entered into the Series D preferred stock Purchase Agreement with new and existing investors. During 2025, we issued and sold 126,036,334 shares of Series D preferred stock for aggregate gross proceeds of $100.4 million. To date, we have received aggregate gross proceeds of $388.8 million from the sale of our preferred stock and convertible notes. In February 2026, the Company entered into a loan and security agreement to borrow up to $30 million. The interest rate on amounts borrowed will be equal to the greater of the prime rate then in effect, or 5%. The maturity date for the loan is June 30, 2030. As of February 6, 2026, no amounts have been borrowed under the facility.

Future Funding Requirements

Due to the inherently unpredictable nature of preclinical and clinical development and given the early stage of our programs and product candidates, we cannot reasonably estimate the costs we will incur and the timelines that will be required to complete development, obtain any marketing approval, and commercialize our products, if and when approved. For the same reasons, we are also unable to predict when, if ever, we will generate revenue from product sales or whether, or when, if ever, we may achieve profitability. Clinical and preclinical development timelines, the probability of success, and development costs can differ materially from expectations. In addition, we cannot forecast which products, if approved, may be subject to future collaborations, when such arrangements will be

secured, if at all, and to what degree such arrangements would affect our development plans and capital requirements. We will need to raise substantial additional capital in the future.

Based upon our current operating plans, we believe that the estimated net proceeds from this offering, together with our existing cash, cash equivalents and investments in marketable securities, will be sufficient to fund our operations into . Our primary uses of capital are to fund research and development activities, compensation and related expenses, and general overhead costs. We expect our expenses to increase substantially in connection with our ongoing activities, particularly as we advance our current and future product candidates through discovery, preclinical studies, and clinical trials.

Our future funding requirements will depend largely on:

We have no committed sources of capital other than the $30 million loan facility. Until such time, if ever, as we can generate substantial product revenue to support our cost structure, we expect to finance our cash needs through equity offerings, debt financings, or other capital sources, potentially including collaborations, licenses, or other strategic arrangements. However, we may be unable to raise additional funds or enter into such other arrangements when needed on favorable terms or at all. To the extent that we raise additional capital through the sale of equity or convertible debt securities, the ownership interest of our stockholders will be diluted, and the terms of these securities may include liquidation or other preferences that adversely affect the rights of our existing common stockholders. In addition, debt financing and equity financing, if available, may involve agreements that include covenants limiting or restricting our ability to take specific actions, such as incurring additional debt, making capital expenditures, or declaring dividends. If we raise additional funds through a strategic agreement, we may have to grant rights to develop and market our current and future product candidates even if we would otherwise prefer to develop and market such product candidates ourselves. Our failure to raise capital or enter into such other arrangements when needed could have a negative impact on our financial condition and on our ability to pursue our business plans and strategies.

If we are unable to raise additional funds, we may be required to delay, limit, reduce or terminate our product development or future commercialization efforts. See “Risk Factors — Even if this offering is successful, we will need substantial additional funding. We may be unable to raise capital on acceptable terms, if at all, and, as a result,
 

we may be required to delay, reduce, or eliminate our product development programs or commercialization
efforts.”

Cash Flows

The following table sets forth a summary of the net cash flow activity (in thousands):

Operating Activities

For the year ended December 31, 2024 , net cash used in operating activities was $48.4 million primarily due to our net loss of $49.7 million and changes in our operating assets and liabilities of $1.4 million, partially offset by $16 thousand of non-cash charges related to stock-based compensation, depreciation and loss on disposal of property and equipment, non-cash operating lease expense, and accretion of premiums on marketable securities.

Investing Activities

Net cash used in investing activities was $91.5 million during the year ended December 31, 2024, which was primarily driven by net purchases and maturities of marketable securities of $91.4 million and purchases of property and equipment of $0.1 million.

Financing Activities

Net cash provided by financing activities was $0.1 million during the year ended December 31, 2024 , which was related to the proceeds of stock option exercises and from the issuance of Series C-2 preferred stock, net of issuance costs.

Contractual Obligations and Commitments

Research and Development and Manufacturing Agreements

We enter into contracts in the normal course of business with CROs, CMOs and other vendors to assist in the research and development activities and other services and products for operating purposes. These contracts generally provide for termination at any time upon a certain amount of prior notice, and therefore are cancelable contracts which are not included in contractual obligations and commitments. Upon termination for convenience, we would be required to pay amounts for services performed through the termination date and, in certain cases, a termination fee equal to 8% of the remaining contractual value for services terminated but not yet performed.

Leases

In September 2025, we relocated our headquarters and executed a non-cancelable operating sublease in Boston, Massachusetts, or the Boston Sublease. Total fixed payments in connection with the Boston Sublease will be $1.9 million over the term of the agreement ending in 2029. This includes our share of facility operating expenses, real-estate taxes, but excludes our share of property management fees that are reimbursable to the landlord under the lease.

Material Agreements

Our agreements with certain third parties to license intellectual property include potential milestone fees, sublicense fees, and royalty fees. The milestone fees are dependent upon the development of our drug products using the intellectual property licensed under the arrangements and contingent upon the achievement of development or regulatory approval milestones, as well as commercial milestones. These potential obligations are contingent upon the occurrence of future events and the timing and likelihood of such potential obligations are not known with certainty. For further information regarding these agreements, please see “Business—Material Agreements.”

Critical Accounting Estimates

Our management’s discussion and analysis of our financial condition and results of operations are based on our consolidated financial statements, which are prepared in accordance with GAAP. The preparation of our consolidated financial statements requires us to make estimates and assumptions that affect the reported amounts of assets, liabilities, costs and expenses and the disclosure of contingent assets and liabilities in our consolidated financial statements and accompanying notes. We evaluate our estimates and judgments on an ongoing basis. We base our estimates on historical experience, known trends and events and on various other factors that we believe are reasonable under the circumstances, the results of which form the basis for making judgments about the carrying values of assets and liabilities that are not readily apparent from other sources. Our actual results may differ from these estimates under different assumptions or conditions.

While our significant accounting policies are more fully described in Note 2, “Summary of Significant Accounting Policies” in our consolidated financial statements included elsewhere in this prospectus, we believe that our critical accounting estimates are as follows.

Research and Development Expenses and Accruals

In preparing the consolidated financial statements, we are required to estimate our accrued research and development expenses as of each balance sheet date. In accruing service fees, we estimate the time period over which services will be performed and the level of effort to be expended in each period. This process involves reviewing open contracts, communicating with internal personnel to identify services that have been performed on our behalf and estimating the level of service performed and the associated cost incurred for the service when we have not yet been invoiced or otherwise notified of the actual cost. We periodically confirm the accuracy of our estimates with our service providers and make adjustments, if necessary. The majority of our service providers invoice in arrears for services performed or when contractual milestones are met. The financial terms of agreements with these service providers are subject to negotiation, vary from contract-to-contract and may result in uneven payment flows. In circumstances where amounts have been paid in excess of costs incurred, we record a prepaid expense.

Contingent milestone payments, if any, are expensed when the milestone results are probable and estimable, which is generally upon the achievement of the milestone.

Although we do not expect our estimates to be materially different from amounts incurred, if our estimates of the status and timing of services performed differ from the actual status and timing of services performed, it could result in us reporting amounts that are too high or too low in any particular period. To date, there have been no material differences between our estimates of such expenses and the amounts incurred.

Stock-Based Compensation Expense

We measure stock-based awards granted to employees, directors and certain consultants based on their fair value on the date of the grant. We recognize compensation expense for awards to employees and directors over the requisite service period, which is generally the vesting period of the respective award. Compensation expense for awards to non-employees with service-based vesting conditions is recognized in the same manner as if we had paid cash in exchange for the goods or services, which is generally over the vesting period of the award. For stock-based awards with service-based vesting conditions, we recognize compensation expense using the straight-line method. The fair

value of each stock option grant is estimated on the date of grant using the Black-Scholes option-pricing model, which requires inputs based on certain subjective assumptions, including the expected stock price volatility, the expected term of the option, fair value of the underlying common stock, the risk-free interest rate for a period that approximates the expected term of the option and our expected dividend yield. Changes in the assumptions can materially affect the fair value and ultimately how much stock-based compensation expense is recognized. These inputs are subjective and generally require judgment to develop. See Note 11, “Stock Option Plan” in our annual consolidated financial statements included elsewhere in this prospectus for information concerning certain of the specific assumptions we used in applying the Black-Scholes option pricing model to determine the estimated fair value of our stock options granted for the year ended December 31, 2025 and 2024. The expected term of stock options granted to non-employees is equal to the contractual term of the option award.

Determination of Fair Value of Common Stock Valuations

As there has been no public market for our common stock to date, the estimated fair value of our common stock has been determined by our board of directors as of the date of each option grant with input from management, considering our most recently available third-party valuations of common stock, and our board of directors’ assessment of additional objective and subjective factors that it believed were relevant and which may have changed from the date of the most recent valuation through the date of the grant. These third-party valuations were performed in accordance with the guidance outlined in the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants’ Accounting and Valuation Guide, Valuation of Privately-Held-Company Equity Securities Issued as Compensation. Our common stock valuation was prepared using either the option-pricing method, or OPM, or the hybrid method, both of which used a market approach to estimate our equity value. The OPM treats common stock and convertible preferred stock as call options on the equity value of a company, with exercise prices based on the value thresholds at which the allocation among the various holders of a company’s securities changes. Under the OPM, the common stock has value only if the funds available for distribution to stockholders exceeded the value of the convertible preferred stock liquidation preferences at the time of the liquidity event, such as a strategic sale or a merger. The hybrid method consists of a probability-weighted expected return method, or PWERM, where the company has insight into one or more near-term exits (e.g., IPO scenario using a PWERM) but is unsure about what will occur if the current plan falls through (e.g., sale scenario using an OPM). The PWERM is a scenario-based methodology that estimates the fair value of common stock based upon an analysis of future values for us, assuming various outcomes. The common stock value in the PWERM scenario is based on the expected future investment returns considering each of the possible outcomes available as well as the rights of each class of stock. The future value of the common stock under in the PWERM scenario is discounted back to the valuation date at an appropriate risk-adjusted discount rate and probability weighted to arrive at an indication of value for the common stock. The OPM is used when specific future liquidity events are difficult to forecast (e.g. sale scenario) as the enterprise’s value depends on how well it follows an uncharted path through the various possible opportunities and challenges. A discount for lack of marketability of the common stock is then applied to arrive at an indication of value for the common stock in each respective scenario, and weightings are applied to arrive at the concluded indication of value for the common stock.

These third-party valuations were performed at various dates. The fair value of our common stock was determined by our board of directors, with input from management and considering the independent third-party valuations and various objective and subjective factors as of each grant date, including:

The assumptions underlying these valuations were highly complex and subjective and represented management’s best estimates, which involved inherent uncertainties and the application of management’s judgment. As a result, if we had used significantly different assumptions or estimates, the fair value of our common stock and our stock-based compensation expense could be materially different.

Once a public trading market for our common stock has been established in connection with the completion of this offering, it will no longer be necessary for our board of directors to estimate the fair value of our common stock in connection with our accounting for granted stock options and other such awards we may grant, as the fair value of our common stock will be determined based on the quoted market price of our common stock.

The following table summarizes by grant date the number of shares subject to awards granted between January 1, 2024 and December 31, 2025, the per share exercise price of the awards and the fair value of common stock underlying the awards on each grant date:

Recent Accounting Pronouncements

A description of recently issued accounting pronouncements that may potentially impact our financial position and results of operations is disclosed in Note 2, “Summary of Significant Accounting Policies” in our consolidated financial statements included elsewhere in this prospectus.

Qualitative and Quantitative Disclosures about Market Risk

We are a “smaller reporting company” as defined in Rule 12b-2 of the Exchange Act and are not required to provide the information otherwise required under this Item.

Emerging Growth Company and Smaller Reporting Company Status

We are an “emerging growth company,” as defined in the JOBS Act, and we may take advantage of certain exemptions from various reporting requirements that are applicable to other public companies that are not emerging growth companies. We may take advantage of these exemptions until we are no longer an emerging growth company. Section 107 of the JOBS Act provides that an “emerging growth company” can take advantage of the extended transition period afforded by the JOBS Act for the implementation of new or revised accounting standards. We have elected to use the extended transition period for complying with new or revised accounting standards and as a result of this election, our consolidated financial statements may not be comparable to companies that comply with public company effective dates. We may take advantage of these exemptions up until the time that we are no longer an “emerging growth company.”

We will remain an emerging growth company until the earlier of (1) the last day of the fiscal year (a) following the fifth anniversary of the completion of this offering, (b) in which we have total annual gross revenue of at least $1.235 billion or (c) in which we are deemed to be a “large accelerated filer” under the rules of the SEC, which means, among other things, the market value of our common stock that is held by non-affiliates exceeds $700.0 million as of the last business day of our most recently completed second fiscal quarter and (2) the date on which we have issued more than $1.0 billion in non-convertible debt during the prior three-year period.

We are also a “smaller reporting company” as defined in the Exchange Act. We may continue to be a smaller reporting company even after we are no longer an emerging growth company. We may take advantage of certain of the scaled disclosures available to smaller reporting companies for so long as either (i) our voting and non-voting common stock held by non-affiliates is less than $250.0 million measured on the last business day of our second fiscal quarter, or (ii) our annual revenue is less than $100.0 million during the most recently completed fiscal year and our voting and non-voting common stock held by non-affiliates is less than $700.0 million measured on the last business day of our second fiscal quarter.

BUSINESS

Overview

We are a clinical-stage biopharmaceutical company pioneering inhaled therapies to transform the treatment paradigm of serious, rare respiratory diseases with significant unmet needs. Our approach is designed to address the limitations of current oral therapies by delivering optimized inhaled formulations of approved oral medicines directly to the lungs to enhance efficacy and minimize systemic exposure that contributes to side effects and treatment discontinuation.

Our current pipeline is focused on treating pulmonary fibrosis, a life-threatening disease with a median survival of three to five years, which is a significantly shorter prognosis than that observed for many forms of cancer. Pulmonary fibrosis is characterized by scarring of the lungs, which can lead to a decline in lung function, progressive shortness of breath, reduced quality of life, and increased mortality risk. There are currently three approved oral antifibrotic therapies for pulmonary fibrosis: pirfenidone, or ESBRIET®; nintedanib, or OFEV®; and nerandomilast, or JASCAYD®. While these oral antifibrotics slow fibrosis progression, none stop progression entirely. In addition, their use is frequently limited by tolerability challenges associated with their systemic delivery. Due to their side effects, around 50% of patients who start treatment with available therapies discontinue within one year. Despite limited use, ESBRIET® and OFEV® generated more than $4.0 billion in gross global sales in 2024.

Our most clinically advanced candidates, AP01 and AP02, are inhaled formulations of pirfenidone and nintedanib for the treatment of progressive pulmonary fibrosis, or PPF, and idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, or IPF, respectively. We have completed ATLAS, a Phase 1b clinical trial of AP01 in patients with IPF. Patients from ATLAS transitioned into an ongoing open-label extension, or OLE, trial, along with compassionate-use cohorts of patients with IPF and PPF. We currently have over four and a half years of data demonstrating safety and clinical activity, including near-stabilization of lung function.

AP01 is currently being evaluated in MIST, a global Phase 2b clinical trial for the treatment of PPF. We have also completed Phase 1 trials of AP02 in healthy adult volunteers and patients with IPF. AP02 is currently being evaluated in AURA, a global Phase 2 clinical trial for the treatment of IPF. We are also advancing AP03 into a Phase 1 clinical trial. AP03 is a fixed-dose combination of inhaled pirfenidone and nintedanib designed to deliver dual antifibrotic mechanisms with the potential for additive or synergistic benefit. We believe our inhaled therapies may offer improved tolerability and efficacy for long-term treatment. These programs are intentionally designed, leveraging our deep expertise in rare respiratory diseases, advanced inhaled drug formulation, and our exclusive license to customize the delivery device.

Our Pipeline

Our wholly owned pipeline is summarized below:

AP01 (Inhaled Pirfenidone)

Our wholly owned product candidate, AP01, is an optimized inhaled formulation of pirfenidone that we are advancing as a treatment for PPF. AP01 has demonstrated encouraging safety and clinical activity in ATLAS, a Phase 1b clinical trial in patients with IPF, and an OLE trial in IPF and PPF patients, which has supported development in PPF. ATLAS was a randomized, open-label trial comparing AP01 50 mg once-daily, or QD, and AP01 100 mg twice-daily, or BID. Both dose regimens showed lowered rates of side effects commonly associated with oral pirfenidone, including gastrointestinal, or GI, toxicities and liver enzyme elevations, compared to historical data with the oral product. At 48 weeks, the high-dose AP01 achieved near stabilization of lung function, as measured by forced vital capacity, or FVC. In addition, analyses of high-resolution computed tomography, or HRCT, imaging indicated fibrosis stabilization or improvement in over 70% of patients evaluated, with reduced lung scarring and improved lung volume, suggesting a potential disease-modifying effect.

An ongoing OLE trial of AP01 has further supported its long-term safety and the potential to stabilize lung function decline. Patients from ATLAS transitioned into the OLE trial with AP01 100 mg BID treatment, along with compassionate-use cohorts of patients with IPF and PPF. Long-term data show consistent safety and FVC trends as ATLAS. The OLE trial has now been underway for more than four and a half years, with 23 patients continuing to receive AP01 100 mg BID treatment. Many of these patients are surpassing six years post-diagnosis, exceeding the three to five years median survival for patients with pulmonary fibrosis after diagnosis.

These results supported our initiation of MIST, a global, randomized, 52-week Phase 2b clinical trial evaluating AP01 in PPF. We strategically selected PPF for Phase 2b development based on the clinical activity and observed anatomical changes seen with AP01; the higher global prevalence of PPF, which is nearly double that of IPF; and a potentially more efficient development and regulatory path. MIST enrollment is ongoing, with initial data expected in .

AP02 (Inhaled Nintedanib)

AP02, our inhaled formulation of nintedanib, has completed a Phase 1 single-ascending dose, or SAD, trial in healthy volunteers and patients with IPF and a Phase 1 SAD and multiple-ascending dose, or MAD, trial in healthy volunteers. AP02 was generally well-tolerated following single doses and throughout 7 days BID, up to the highest dose of 8 mg BID. AP02 also showed favorable pharmacokinetic, or PK, properties, notably no difference in systemic exposure between healthy volunteers and IPF patients, and an increase in pulmonary exposure and significantly lower systemic exposure with AP02 compared to oral nintedanib, supporting its targeted lung delivery. Based on these data, we initiated AURA, a global Phase 2 clinical trial of AP02 in patients with IPF. Data from AURA is expected .

AP03 (Inhaled Fixed-Dose Combination of Pirfenidone and Nintedanib)

Combination therapies targeting multiple mechanisms are well established in other chronic lung diseases such as asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, or COPD, and pulmonary arterial hypertension, or PAH. We designed AP03 as a fixed-dose combination of inhaled pirfenidone and inhaled nintedanib, leveraging the two complementary antifibrotic mechanisms of action that have shown signals of enhanced efficacy in pulmonary fibrosis, but have been historically limited by overlapping systemic toxicities. A historical, independent clinical trial in IPF demonstrated that combined use of oral pirfenidone and oral nintedanib exhibit potential for additive or even synergistic effects, improving lung function decline more than monotherapy. However, the challenging systemic side effects have limited the clinical feasibility of oral combination, given the overlapping adverse event, or AE, profiles of nintedanib and pirfenidone. We believe that delivering both molecules via inhalation has the potential to be transformative in the treatment of pulmonary fibrosis, where treatment options remain limited. AP03 reflects our initial effort to advance the treatment algorithm in pulmonary fibrosis. We are advancing manufacturing activities through a CMO for AP03. Pending alignment with regulatory authorities, we plan to initiate a Phase 1 clinical trial of AP03 as an inhaled fixed-dose combination in .

Our Lung-Targeted Inhalation Delivery Method

Our pipeline benefits from an exclusive license to PARI Technology Services’, or PARI’s, eRapid® Nebulizer System with eFlow® Technology for their delivery. PARI’s eFlow® Technology nebulizers are clinically and commercially validated, with five drug-device combinations products using their nebulizers approved by regulatory authorities in North America, Europe, and Japan, including LAMIRA® for ARIKAYCE® and ALTERA® for CAYSTON®. Our PARI exclusivity offers a key competitive advantage, as we are not taking any incremental device risk and the proprietary device would be included in any potential product labels approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration, or the FDA, and other foreign regulatory authorities.

We have chosen nebulized delivery for our current programs, as we believe it offers the best solution for patients with pulmonary fibrosis, who often suffer from chronic cough and compromised lung function. Nebulized formulation produces a soft, gentle mist that allows for normal tidal breathing without requiring forceful inhalation. This minimizes cough induction and improves usability for the vast majority of patients. In contrast, other approaches like dry powder inhalers, or DPIs, require a powder formulation that is aerosolized through the device and depend on patients initiating a deep, vigorous inhalation to deliver the dose. Such inhalation can trigger cough, and if the patient coughs immediately afterward, much of the drug may be expelled, reducing efficacy. While a segment of the population with pulmonary fibrosis could successfully use a DPI, the size of that segment remains uncertain. We believe that nebulization offers a more reliable and patient-friendly solution.

By advancing a portfolio of optimized inhaled therapies, we aim to deliver transformative, patient-centered treatment solutions for pulmonary fibrosis and other interstitial lung diseases, or ILDs, setting a new standard of care for these underserved populations.

Our Team

We have a seasoned leadership team with deep experience in developing and commercializing respiratory medicines and inhaled therapeutics. Collectively, our team members have played key roles in the development, regulatory review, and commercial launches of several respiratory and inhaled therapeutics, including ESBRIET®, OFEV®, JASCAYD®, BREZTRI®, BEVESPI®, XOLAIR®, TOBI®, and BAXDELA®.

Our key leadership team consists of:

Since our inception, we have raised approximately $389 million in equity capital from a syndicate of premier investors in healthcare and life sciences, including Novo Holdings A/S; SR One; F-Prime; Perceptive Xontogeny Venture Funds; Norwest Venture Funds; Eventide Asset Management; Wellington Management; Vida Ventures; Catalio Capital Management; RiverVest Venture Partners; Pivotal bioVenture Partners; TPG Biotech; Suvretta Capital Management; Hamilton Square Partners Management; Rock Springs Capital; Surveyor Capital (a Citadel Company); funds and accounts advised by T. Rowe Price Associates, Inc.; and Piper Heartland. Potential investors should not consider investments made by our existing investors as a factor when making a decision to purchase shares in this offering since our existing investors likely have different risk tolerances and paid significantly less per share than the price at which the shares are being offered in this offering.

Our Strategy

Our mission is to transform the lives of patients with serious, rare respiratory diseases through innovative inhaled therapies, beginning with pulmonary fibrosis. To achieve our mission, we are focused on the following strategic priorities:

We believe in the value our approach could unlock and are committed to growing into a company fully capable of realizing that potential opportunity.

Our Focus on Interstitial Lung Diseases

ILDs are a heterogeneous group of rare pulmonary disorders, comprising over 200 distinct conditions, many of which lack approved or effective treatments. ILDs are characterized by varying degrees of inflammation, fibrosis, or both. These conditions impair gas exchange and patients’ quality of life, or QoL, by causing chronic breathlessness, fatigue, coughing, and reduced ability to perform daily activities.

Treatment and management of ILDs vary based on the specific underlying disease and patient characteristics. Historically, the treatment of many ILDs has primarily relied on systemic therapies, including oral antifibrotics, corticosteroids, and other immunomodulatory therapies. These systemic treatments are often associated with tolerability limitations that can affect long-term use. We believe we may be able to address certain limitations of systemic ILD therapies, initially focusing on pulmonary fibrosis, through the development of optimized inhaled formulations of established oral antifibrotic agents. By delivering drugs directly to the lungs, our approach is designed to fundamentally improve the benefit-risk profile of antifibrotic therapy by achieving higher drug concentration at the site of disease while substantially reducing systemic exposure. We believe this lung-targeted delivery strategy enables sustained long-term treatment, addressing key limitations of existing systemic therapies and supporting better treatment adherence and long-term disease management for patients with interstitial lung disease.

Pulmonary Fibrosis Background

Pulmonary fibrosis is a pathologic phenotype observed across a substantial subset of ILDs and is characterized by chronic injury, aberrant repair, and progression, typically irreversible fibrosis and stiffening of lung tissue. Although different ILDs have distinct underlying etiologies, pathophysiology, and clinical courses, many forms of ILD can ultimately result in pulmonary fibrosis. Once pulmonary fibrosis develops, disease progression may continue even if the underlying cause of ILD is treated or removed. ILDs represent a significant global health burden, affecting about five million people worldwide and over 650,000 in the U.S. alone, of which approximately 300,000 have pulmonary fibrosis. The median survival of pulmonary fibrosis has historically been estimated at approximately three to five years, which is a significantly shorter prognosis than that observed for many forms of cancer.

Pulmonary fibrosis is often caused by repeated injury to the lungs and results from a dysregulated tissue repair response. Recurrent damage to the alveolar epithelial cells disrupts the epithelium, triggers recruitment of platelets and inflammatory cells, and subsequently promotes chronic inflammation and progressive fibrosis through excessive deposition of extracellular matrix components. Over time, this fibrotic remodeling disrupts normal lung architecture and impairs gas exchange, compromising the lung’s ability to transfer oxygen into the bloodstream and leading to worsening respiratory symptoms, including persistent dry cough, shortness of breath, and fatigue. Cough is among the most common and distressing symptoms, affecting more than 70% of patients with pulmonary fibrosis, often refractory to standard therapies, and significantly impairs quality of life. These symptoms typically worsen in parallel with declining pulmonary function test results and frequently ultimately result in acute respiratory deterioration or death. Current treatment approaches for pulmonary fibrosis focus on antifibrotic therapies to slow disease progression, along with supportive care.

There are two primary clinical forms of pulmonary fibrosis: IPF and PPF. IPF is an ILD of unknown etiology characterized by progressive fibrotic remodeling of the lungs over time. Patients with IPF typically present with a chronic, dry cough and progressively worsening shortness of breath, with symptoms advancing over months to years. IPF affects an estimated three million people worldwide and approximately 120,000 people in the U.S. The disease is most commonly diagnosed in men aged 65 years and older and has been associated with environmental exposures, such as smoking, chronic viral infections, abnormal gastroesophageal reflux, as well as certain genetic predispositions.

PPF, by contrast, refers to ILDs with a known etiological factor, such as autoimmune disease or exposure to allergens, asbestos, or certain drugs where a subset of patients develop a progressive pulmonary fibrotic phenotype. Patients with PPF also experience chronic cough and breathlessness, although the rate and severity of progression may vary based on the underlying etiology. Consequently, management of PPF typically requires treatment of the underlying disease in combination with antifibrotic therapy. PPF represents a more prevalent form of pulmonary fibrosis, affecting an estimated six million people worldwide and approximately 180,000 people in the U.S.

Types of Interstitial Lung Disease

Sources: 1. Jeganathan et al., 2024; 2. Avalyn Market Research; 3. Olson et al., 2021.
PPF, previously referred to as Progressive Fibrosing ILD (PF-ILD)

If left untreated, patients with IPF and PPF will experience a decline in FVC, a measure of the total amount of air an individual can breathe out after taking the deepest breath possible. Change in FVC is a widely accepted measure of disease progression and a surrogate endpoint associated with increased mortality risk. Patients with IPF and PPF typically experience a decline of approximately 4 to 7%, or approximately 200 mL, per year. By comparison, average FVC decline among healthy adults over 40 years of age is approximately 20 mL to 50 mL per year. With IPF patients, such accelerated decline in FVC is associated with clinically significant consequences. These include increased risk of hospitalization, overall decreased health-related quality of life, or HRQoL, due to worsening symptoms, such as cough and shortness of breath, and mortality risk. Despite the availability of approved therapies, the prognosis of pulmonary fibrosis remains poor, with a median survival of three to five years, a significantly shorter prognosis than that observed for many forms of cancers. As a result, there remains a critical need for new treatment options that offer improved tolerability, efficacy, and patient convenience to enable long-term disease management.

Natural History of Baseline FVC Changes in Healthy Subjects and IPF Patients

Source: Raghu et al., 2017

Our Approach to Transforming the Treatment Paradigm for ILDs

The change we aim to make in the treatment paradigm of pulmonary fibrosis and other ILDs parallels the transformation seen in the treatment of asthma and COPD over the past six decades, where treatment progressed through successive waves of therapeutic innovation.

The first generation of treatments for managing asthma and COPD were systemic oral drugs like prednisone which first emerged in the 1960s. By the 1990s, the introduction of inhaled corticosteroids such as Flovent® shifted the treatment toward targeted pulmonary delivery, which enabled improved efficacy and tolerability. As inhaler devices with diverse mechanisms became available, physicians began combining medications to better manage patients’ conditions. In the early 2000s, dual combination inhalers like ADVAIR® and SYMBICORT® set a new benchmark by combining two antifibrotic agents with distinct mechanisms of action in a single device. Today, triple combination therapies such as TRELEGY® and BREZTRI® represent the latest standard-of-care, providing further enhanced efficacy and convenience compared to previous generations.

Evolution of Asthma and COPD Treatment Landscape

Today, the pulmonary fibrosis market is currently in “Generation One,” relying on oral systemic medications: pirfenidone, nintedanib, and nerandomilast. We aim to usher in “Generation Two” developing and commercializing inhaled formulations of these two oral antifibrotic medicines, as AP01 and AP02, and potentially improving safety and efficacy. Beyond AP01 and AP02 we aspire to also deliver “Generation Three,” with AP03, a dual fixed-dose combination of drugs with complementary mechanisms for even greater therapeutic impact. Looking ahead, we also aspire to deliver “Generation Four,” building on AP03 by incorporating other approved distinct mechanisms into triple fixed-dose combinations.

Potential Evolution of IPF and PPF Treatment Landscape

If successful, we believe our approach would meaningfully enhance patient outcomes and redefine the future treatment paradigm of pulmonary fibrosis.

Antifibrotic Treatment Landscape for Pulmonary Fibrosis

There are currently three FDA-approved antifibrotic therapies for the treatment of pulmonary fibrosis: pirfenidone, or ESBRIET®, marketed by Legacy Pharma Inc. and Genentech/Roche; nintedanib, or OFEV®, marketed by Boehringer Ingelheim; and nerandomilast, or JASCAYD®, marketed by Boehringer Ingelheim. These current standard-of-care oral antifibrotic therapies slow but do not halt nor reverse disease progression. As a result, current oral antifibrotic therapies expose patients to chronic systemic drug exposure without directly targeting the site of disease, contributing to significant limitations, including safety concerns, tolerability issues, and tablet burden. Importantly, most investigational therapies for pulmonary fibrosis, including those targeting novel biological pathways, are in development as potential add-on treatments to existing oral antifibrotics. Given we are developing inhaled formulations of these background standard-of-care antifibrotics, we believe our product candidates could be used as standalone therapies or in combination with other approved medicines. While lung transplants can be performed for pulmonary fibrosis patients at an increased risk of death, this option is only viable for a very small subset of patients due to age, comorbidities, and limited organ availability.

Oral Pirfenidone (ESBRIET®) for IPF

Oral pirfenidone is a small molecule inhibitor that has anti-inflammatory and anti-fibrotic effects through modulation of a broad range of cytokines and growth factors. ESBRIET® was approved for the treatment of IPF initially by the European Medicines Agency, or EMA, in 2011 followed by the FDA in 2014. The FDA approval of pirfenidone was based on data from the CAPACITY (Studies 004 and 006) and ASCEND (Study 016) clinical trials. These randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trials collectively enrolled more than 1,200 patients with IPF. The ASCEND trial and CAPACITY-004 trial demonstrated a statistically significant reduction in FVC decline at 52 weeks (ASCEND: -118 mL vs -265 mL, p<0.001; CAPACITY-004: -181mL vs -350 mL, p<0.001). Additionally, pooled analyses of the CAPACITY and ASCEND trials showed improved progression-free survival and a trend toward reduced all-cause mortality.

Oral pirfenidone is prescribed using a dose-escalation regimen over a 14-day period, culminating in a target dose of 801 mg three times daily for a total daily dose of 2,403 mg. This is typically achieved through the administration of nine 267 mg capsules per day.

Common AEs for pirfenidone include GI intolerance characterized by nausea, vomiting, indigestion, and diarrhea. In registration trials, 19% of patients required dose reductions or treatment interruptions due to GI events. In addition, due to photosensitivity reactions and rashes, patients on oral pirfenidone are advised to take precautions against sun exposure.

Oral Nintedanib (OFEV®) for IPF and PPF

Oral nintedanib is a small molecule tyrosine kinase inhibitor that was approved for the treatment of IPF by the FDA in 2014 and subsequently by the EMA in 2015. FDA approval of nintedanib for IPF was based on clinical results from a pair of randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled Phase 3 trials (INPULSIS-1 and INPULSIS-2) that demonstrated a statistically significant reduction in the annual rate of FVC decline over a 52-week period compared to placebo (-113.6 mL/year vs. -223.5 mL/year, p<0.001).

By 2020, nintedanib gained additional approvals from both the FDA and EMA for the treatment of two types of PPF: chronic fibrosing ILDs with a progressive phenotype, and systemic sclerosis-associated ILD. These approvals were supported by clinical data from the INBUILD and SENSCIS trials, where both of the studies demonstrated that oral nintedanib significantly reduced the annual rate of FVC decline in patients compared to placebo (SENSCIS: -52.4 mL/year vs. -93.3 mL/year, p=0.04; INBUILD: -80.8 mL/year vs. -187.8 mL/year, p<0.001).

Similar to oral pirfenidone, oral nintedanib is also associated with multiple serious side effects, including nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, headache, hyperbilirubinemia (which can lead to jaundice), GI perforation, as well as cardiovascular events, including high blood pressure, increased risk of myocardial infarction, and arterial thromboembolism. Across all registrational studies, 61-76% of patients experienced diarrhea, which can be severe enough to lead to treatment discontinuation.

Current Utility of Oral Pirfenidone and Nintedanib Hindered by Systemic Toxicities

Although oral pirfenidone and nintedanib are approved for the treatment of pulmonary fibrosis, their clinical utility is significantly limited by systemic AEs and modest efficacy. Both agents are associated with high rates of GI and other treatment-limiting toxicities that frequently require dose reductions, treatment interruptions, or permanent discontinuations. In addition to the toxicities of the systemic therapies, patients also continue to experience worsening respiratory symptoms and declining quality of life while on treatment. As a result, only approximately 30% of patients with IPF are actively treated with antifibrotics and 50% of patients discontinue within one year of treatment.

Both oral pirfenidone and nintedanib have warnings for elevated liver enzymes and liver abnormalities, which further limits their long-term use. Routine monitoring of liver function is recommended to mitigate risks with both agents, with the potential for dose reduction or treatment discontinuation. Particularly for nintedanib that is metabolized in the liver, its use in patients with moderate-to-severe hepatic impairment is not recommended due to increased drug exposure and potential toxicity. Caution is advised in patients with coagulation disorders or those on anticoagulant therapy as nintedanib may increase the risk of bleeding.

Despite these safety and tolerability limitations, oral pirfenidone, or ESBRIET®, and oral nintedanib, or OFEV®, remain commercially significant products. ESBRIET® and OFEV® experienced comparable global adoption following their initial launches through 2018. However, OFEV® generated substantial incremental revenue following its label expansion to include PPF beginning in 2019. In 2024, global sales of OFEV® exceeded $4.0 billion. These limitations and the commercial performance highlight the significant unmet medical need and commercial opportunity for antifibrotic therapies that preserve lung function while offering a more favorable tolerability profile that supports sustained long-term use in this progressive and ultimately fatal disease.

Oral Nerandomilast (JASCAYD®) for IPF and PPF

Nerandomilast is an oral, small molecule, selective phosphodiesterase-4B inhibitor that was approved by the FDA in 2025 for the treatment of IPF and PPF. FDA approval of nerandomilast was based on clinical results from two randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled Phase 3 trials (FIBRONEER-IPF and FIBRONEER-ILD) that demonstrated a statistically significant reduction in the annual rate of FVC decline over a 52-week period compared to placebo (IPF: -114.7 mL/year vs. -183.5 mL/year, p<0.001; PPF: -98.6 mL/year vs. -165.8 mL/year).

Similar to oral nintedanib, nerandomilast is also associated with GI AEs, most notably diarrhea, which occurred in approximately 40% of patients. The incidence of diarrhea was higher among patients receiving nerandomilast in combination with background oral nintedanib, affecting approximately 50–60% of such patients. Diarrhea was the most frequently reported adverse reaction leading to treatment discontinuation, again most common when nerandomilast was used in combination with nintedanib.

Other Developmental Treatments for IPF and PPF

Beyond pirfenidone, nintedanib, and nerandomilast, there are also other product candidates in various stages of development for IPF and PPF. All of the companies actively conducting trials of novel mechanisms of action allow patients to remain on background oral antifibrotics. If these novel mechanisms are successful, they may benefit from combination with inhaled, tissue-specific therapies in the future.

Our Expertise Enables Differentiated Inhaled Therapeutic Solutions

By leveraging our expertise in inhaled drug formulation, delivery systems, and customization, we aim to provide effective, patient-centric therapeutic solutions that address the unmet needs in respiratory disease treatment. Key aspects of our patented formulation process include: